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Social Psychology
Research Proposal Paper: Each student will be asked to design a social psychological study. (The study should not be carried out.) The paper describing the study should be written in APA style and should contain:
1) a title page;
2) an abstract;
3) an introduction, or literature review (with at least three references),ending with an original hypothesis;
4) a method section (in which the design is explained); and 4) a reference section. The report should be at least six pages long. Do not use websites as citations. ***Please do NOT put any type of results. This is a proposal of what study you would do if you were allowed, not what you have done. Thus, the abstract and method section should be written in future tense. a. Students are strongly encouraged to take drafts of their reports to the Writing Tutors at Academic Services (see http://www.nova.edu/tutoring-testing/index.html). Because this is a college course, grammatically correct writing is expected. b. This paper needs to be an EXPERIMENT or CORRELATIONAL STUDY with a testable hypothesis. The paper should not be written about an observational study. c. This paper needs to be in APA style. You should have the American Psychological Association Publication Manuals your guide. You can also use some of the information on the APA style website at www.apastyle.org. d. Of course, students must not plagiarize in this paper. It is your responsibility to know what plagiarism is and avoid doing it; however, one quick tip is that whenever you read information from somewhere else, you need to give that author(s) credit, right at that point in the paper, so that the reader knows exactly where you got your information. Note: Papers are to be submitted prior to or on the DUE date. Papers submitted late will be subject to a penalty of one-third of a letter grade per day. No paper will be accepted after the last day of the semester. For papers, websites are NOT acceptable as sources. If you have websites as sources, you will be marked off. If your paper is not in APA style, you will be marked off.
the topic will be about Violence and Aggression
the resource should be books not websites
The Fumblerules of Writing Each of these rules illustrates the mistake that it addresses. The rule is valid, but the sentence errs. For that reason, the columnist William Safire has dubbed these “The Fumblerules of Writing.” The Fumblerules of Grammar * Avoid run-on sentences they are hard to read. * Don’t use no double negatives. * Verbs has to agree with their subjects. * No sentence fragments. * Proof read carefully to see if you any words out. * A writer must not shift your point of view. * Place pronouns as close as possible, especially in long sentences, as of 10 or more words, to their antecedents. * Everyone should be careful to use a singular pronoun with singular nouns in their writing. * Steer clear of incorrect forms of verbs that have snuck in the language. * Writing carefully, dangling participles must be avoided. * Write all adverbial forms correct. The Fumblerules of Punctuation * Use the semicolon properly, always use it where it is appropriate; and never where it isn’t. * Reserve the apostrophe for it’s proper use and omit it when its not needed. * Avoid commas, that are not necessary. * Avoid overuse of “quotation “marks.”””” * Don’t overuse exclamation marks!!!!! * Hyphenate between syllables and avoid un-necessary hyphens. The Fumblerules of Style and Diction * Never use a long word when you can use a diminutive one. * Be more or less specific. * The passive voice should be avoided. * Do not put statements in the negative form. * If you reread your work, you will find on rereading that a great deal of repetition can be avoided by rereading and editing. * If I’ve told you once, I’ve told you a thousand times, resist hyperbole. * Also, avoid awkward or affected alliteration. * Don’t string too many prepositional phrases together unless you are walking through the valley of the shadow of death. * Always pick on the correct idiom. * Eschew dialect, irregardless. * It is incumbent on us to avoid archaisms. * As Ralph Waldo Emerson said,”I hate quotations. Tell me what you know.” * Take the bull by the hand and avoid mixed metaphors. * Avoid trendy locutions that sound flaky. * Never, ever use repetitive redundancies. * Last but not least, avoid cliches like the plague.
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The Effect of Watching Aggressive Interactions on Stress
Joe Student
Nova Southeastern University
PSYC 1020: Introduction to Psychology
Dr. Sternglanz
April 4th, 2006
The Effect of Watching Aggressive Interactions on Stress
Health psychologists have demonstrated that repeated exposure to aggressive behavior can be stressful (Smith, Bird, & Jones, 1974; Doe, 1989)…..
Note that the heading of the Introduction is the title of the paper, rather than the word “Introduction.” In the Introduction, you review numerous studies in the area you are researching. You don’t have to mention everything about the journal articles you cite; just talk about the parts that are relevant to your topic. Ideally, your paper should flow as a cohesive “story” about a certain area of research. That is, you are summarizing the state of research on a given topic; naturally, in order to do that, you need to explain what studies have been done on this topic. If you can integrate your article explanations together to provide a cohesive picture of the research in this area, that’s great. Even if your articles contradict each other, you can discuss the dilemma of which viewpoint is the correct one.
Remember, every assertion in the text of your paper must be cited. Remember that most, if not all, of your references should be from empirical journal articles. Empirical journal articles are articles in which the researchers conducted a study or studies. You can find these empirical journal articles through the PsycInfo database, and you can read them in the journal stacks on the second floor of the NSU Alvin Sherman Library. In your paper, citations should include the authors and the year. If the two or more author names are inside parentheses (), you use an “&”. If you use the author names outside of parentheses, you use the word “and.” Here are some examples below:
Researchers have found that parents can read the facial expressions of their own children more accurately than those of other children (Zuckerman & Prewuzman, 1979).
Zuckerman and Prewuzman (1979) found that parents can read the facial expressions of their own children more accurately than those of other children.
Page numbers are not given unless there is a direct quote. Below are some examples if you are quoting the author directly. You should try to keep direct quotes to a minimum; it is much better to paraphrase and put the quote into your own words.
According to a recent study, “one out of six women are sexually assaulted” (Jones & Smith, 1998, p. 32).
According to Jones and Smith (1998, p. 32), “one out of six women are sexually assaulted.” In 1998, Jones and Smith (p. 32) said, “One out of six women are sexually assaulted.”
Your Introduction should start off with an opening paragraph (in which you introduce the topic and provide some context for it), then go into your review of the relevant literature (citing articles where appropriate), and end with the hypothesis for your study. An example of an ending for an Introduction section (i.e., the hypothesis) appears below.
Although many studies have investigated the relationship between aggression and stress, no one has looked specifically at the effects of watching an aggressive interaction on stress. In the present research, the effects of watching an aggressive interaction will be examined. It is predicted that participants who watch an aggressive interaction will experience higher levels of stress than participants who do not watch an aggressive interaction.
Method
Participants
Four-hundred undergraduates at a large university in Southern Florida will participate in the study. All participants will be between the ages of 18 and 24.
Materials
A polygraph will be used to determine participants’ skin conductance levels…..
A questionnaire will also be used to measure stress (see Appendix A).
Procedure
Participants will be recruited through advertisements posted on a college campus…..
The study will take place in a large college campus auditorium. Participants will be run in groups of ten. When participants arrive at the auditorium, they will be greeted and asked to read and sign an informed consent agreement. Then the experimenter will ask participants to…..
The procedure should include every step that participants will go through. If someone else wanted to run your study, he or she should be able to do so after reading your procedure. In addition, the variables should be clearly defined. For an experiment, the procedure should explain precisely how the dependent or outcome measure(s) will be measured, and should explain precisely how the two or more conditions of the independent variable(s) will be set up. For a correlational study, the procedure should explain exactly how the two (or more) variables will be measured.
Upon completion of the study, participants will be thanked for their time and thoroughly debriefed.
References
Doe, J. (1989). The relationship between aggression and stress. Personality and Social
Psychology Bulletin, 83, 589-605. doi:10.1037/pspb.1989.26.10.1120
Jones, A. B., & Smith, C. D. (1998). Sexual assault and dating. In B. R. Egan (Ed.),
Gender across the lifespan (pp. 31-59). New York: Springer.
Smith, C. D., Bird, L. J., and Jones, A. B. (1974). Aggressive behavior in professional
athletes predicts stress-related heart problems. Journal of Sports Psychology, 13,
432-439. doi:12.1897/jsp.1974.24.12.1999
Zuckerman, M., and Prewuzman, H. C. (1979). Parents’ skill at decoding nonverbal
cues of their children. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78, 304-
311. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.75.3.1067
Appendix A
Stress Questionnaire
Please answer the following questions. Simply circle the letter that best indicates how you feel at this moment.
1. How anxious do you feel right now?
A – Not at all anxious
B – A little anxious
C – Moderately anxious
D – Very anxious
E – Extremely anxious
[etc. …]
HELPFUL HINTS FOR FINDING ARTICLES
AND WRITING AN INTRODUCTION SECTION
IN AN APA-FORMAT PAPER
1. TIPS ON HOW TO FIND EMPIRICAL PSYCHOLOGY JOURNAL ARTICLES USING PSYCINFO:
To write the Introduction section of a paper, you will need to find several journal articles. To find a professional psychology journal article, you need to look in the PsycInfo database. You can always ask the librarian for help with this, but here is a step-by-step way to access the database from the NSU webpage:
1. Go to http://sherman.library.nova.edu/
2. Click on “Databases by name” and select “PsycInfo.”
3. Log in using your NSU login and password.
4. Now you can search any topic in psychology by entering it into the PsycInfo database and clicking on “search”! Use the options on the right side to narrow your search, such as by limiting sources to those that have certain words in the title (TI) of the article, or those written by certain authors (AU). You can also check the boxes to limit your search to “peer reviewed” “scholarly journals” with a particular range of publication dates.
5. *** IMPORTANT: After you have searched for a topic, you may wish to click on the tab which limits it to “peer-reviewed journal articles.” You should try to cite mostly or all empirical journal articles, which are articles in which the authors did an experiment or study or some kind. You should avoid using too many book chapters. Book chapters are essentially reviews of the literature in a certain field, which is what you would be doing when writing your introduction section (so it doesn’t make sense to do a review of someone else’s review).
6. After you have found articles through PsycInfo, you may be able to download the article directly as a PDF file. But if the article is unavailable online, write down or print the relevant information (article title, authors, journal name). Then you just go to the library to find the actual article itself. Journals are on the second floor of the main campus library; you can ask a librarian for help if you can’t find them. The journals there are in alphabetical order. For example, if your article appears on pages 126-135 of “Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin” (1995), you would go to the journals, find “Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, pull out the collection of journals from the year 1995, and turn to page 126. Then you Xerox the entire article to take home with you, and read it in detail in order to talk about it in your paper.
2. TIPS ON CITATIONS IN THE INTRODUCTION SECTION OF AN APA-FORMAT PAPER:
Ideally, your Introduction section should flow as a cohesive “story” about a certain area of research. That is, you are summarizing the state of research on a given topic; naturally, in order to do that, you need to explain what studies have been done on this topic. If you can integrate your article explanations together to provide a cohesive picture of the research in this area, that’s great. Even if your articles contradict each other, you can discuss the dilemma of which viewpoint is the correct one.
Below I am including a list of tips for citing articles in APA (American Psychological Association) format:
APA Citation Format
Every statement of fact in the text of one of your papers must be cited. How do you know it? From a journal article? From a book chapter? A webpage? If you didn’t do the research yourself, you must cite it in the text. Then that reference must appear again at the end of your paper in your References section. [Note specific to PSYC 1020 students: for your first PSYC 1020 paper, you are not required to have a references section. In addition, most of your references should be from empirical journal articles, and none of them should be from the web or a TV show.] Statements of fact that are not referenced will cost you points on your grade.
In your paper, citations should be in the form “(author, year).” There are some examples below.
If the two or more author names are inside parentheses (), you use an “&”. If you use the author names outside of parentheses, you use the word “and.” For example:
Researchers have found that parents can read the facial expressions of their own children more accurately than those of other children (Zuckerman & Prewuzman, 1979).
Zuckerman and Prewuzman (1979) found that parents can read the facial expressions of their own children more accurately than those of other children.
Page numbers are NOT given unless there is a direct quote. A direct quote is the kind you need quotation marks for — when you are using the author’s exact words, not paraphrasing him or her. It’s not a difficult distinction — if you use “quotes” you need a page number; otherwise you don’t need to list the page number. Just remember you must always include BOTH the author and the year. Examples appear below.
Here are some examples if you are paraphrasing — saying what the author said, but in your own words (which you should try to do most of the time):
One out of six women are sexually assaulted (Jones & Smith, 1998).
According to Jones and Smith (1998), one out of six women are sexually assaulted.
Below are some examples if you are quoting the author directly: (You should try to keep this to a minimum.)
According to a recent study, “one out of six women are sexually assaulted” (Jones & Smith, 1998, p. 32).
According to Jones and Smith (1998, p. 32), “one out of six women are sexually assaulted.”
In 1998, Jones and Smith (p. 32) said, “One out of six women are sexually assaulted.”
Finally, I highly recommend going to Academic Services (see the handout I gave you in class)! First of all, they have guidelines for writing in APA format, which you may find helpful. Second of all, they have FREE tutors to help you. You can request a tutor who knows APA format writing.
Social Psychology Ninth Edition
Elliot Aronson
Timothy D. Wilson
Robin M. Akert
Samuel R. Sommers
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A01_ARON6544_09_SE_FM.indd 1 28/05/15 1:47 AM
Credits and acknowledgments borrowed from other sources and reproduced, with permission, in this textbook appear on the appropriate page within the text or on pages 567–572.
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 by Pearson Education, Inc. or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. Printed in the United States of America. This publication is protected by copyright, and permission should be obtained from the publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise. For information regarding permissions, request forms and the appropriate contacts within the Pearson Education Global Rights & Permissions department, please visit www.pearsoned.com/permissions/.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Aronson, Elliot. Social psychology / Elliot Aronson, Timothy D. Wilson, Robin M. Akert, Samuel R. Sommers. — Ninth Edition. pages cm Revised editon of the authors’ Social psychology, 2013. ISBN 978-0-13-393654-4 (Student Edition) 1. Social psychology. I. Wilson, Timothy D. II. Akert, Robin M. III. Title. HM1033.A78 2016 302—dc23 2015016513
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Student Edition ISBN-10: 0-13-393654-6 ISBN-13: 978-0-13-393654-4
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To my grandchildren: Jacob, Jason, Ruth, Eliana, Natalie, Rachel, and Leo. My hope is that your capacity for empathy and compassion will help make
the world a better place.
—E.A.
To my family, Deirdre Smith, Christopher Wilson, and Leigh Wilson
—T.D.W.
To my mentor, colleague, and friend, Dane Archer
—R.M.A.
To my students—past, present, and future—for making coming to work each morning fun, educational, and unpredictable.
—S.R.S.
A01_ARON6544_09_SE_FM.indd 3 28/05/15 1:47 AM
iv
1 Introducing Social Psychology 1
2 Methodology: How Social Psychologists Do Research 23
3 Social Cognition: How We Think About the Social World 51
4 Social Perception: How We Come to Understand Other People 84
5 The Self: Understanding Ourselves in a Social Context 119
6 The Need to Justify Our Actions: The Costs and Benefits of Dissonance Reduction 157
7 Attitudes and Attitude Change: Influencing Thoughts and Feelings 188
8 Conformity: Influencing Behavior 226
9 Group Processes: Influence in Social Groups 269
10 Interpersonal Attraction: From First Impressions to Close Relationships 303
11 Prosocial Behavior: Why Do People Help? 344
12 Aggression: Why Do We Hurt Other People? Can We Prevent It? 375
13 Prejudice: Causes, Consequences, and Cures 413
Social Psychology in Action 1 Using Social Psychology to Achieve a Sustainable and Happy Future 455
Social Psychology in Action 2 Social Psychology and Health 476
Social Psychology in Action 3 Social Psychology and the Law 496
Brief Contents
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v
Preface xi About the Authors xvii Special Tips for Students xix
1 Introducing Social Psychology 1 Defining Social Psychology 3 Try IT! How Do Other People Affect your Values? 3
Social Psychology, Philosophy, Science, and Common Sense 4 How Social Psychology Differs from Its Closest Cousins 6
Try IT! Social Situations and Shyness 7
The Power of the Situation 9 The Importance of Explanation 10 The Importance of Interpretation 12
Where Construals Come From: Basic Human Motives 15 The Self-Esteem Motive: The Need to Feel Good About Ourselves 16
SuffERiNg AND SELf-JuSTifiCATioN
The Social Cognition Motive: The Need to Be Accurate 17 ExpECTATioNS AbouT ThE SoCiAL WoRLD
Summary 20 • Test Yourself 21
2 Methodology: How Social Psychologists Do Research 23
Social Psychology: An Empirical Science 24 Try IT! Social Psychology Quiz: What’s your Prediction? 25
Formulating Hypotheses and Theories 25 iNSpiRATioN fRoM EARLiER ThEoRiES and ReSeaRch • hYpoTheSeS BaSed oN pERSoNAL obSERvATioNS
Research Designs 27
The Observational Method: Describing Social Behavior 28 eThnogRaphY • aRchival analYSiS • limiTS of ThE obSERvATioNAL METhoD
The Correlational Method: Predicting Social Behavior 30 SuRveYS • limiTS of The coRRelaTional meThod: CoRRELATioN DoES NoT EquAL CAuSATioN
Try IT! Correlation and Causation: Knowing the Difference 33
The Experimental Method: Answering Causal Questions 34 independenT and dependenT vaRiaBleS • inTeRnal validiTY in expeRimenTS • exTeRnal validiTY in expeRimenTS • field expeRimenTS • ReplicaTionS and meTa-analYSiS • BaSic veRSuS applied ReSeaRch
New Frontiers in Social Psychological Research 42 Culture and Social Psychology 43 The Evolutionary Approach 43 Social Neuroscience 44
Ethical Issues in Social Psychology 45 Summary 48 • Test Yourself 49
3 Social Cognition: How We Think About the Social World 51
On Automatic Pilot: Low-Effort Thinking 53 People as Everyday Theorists: Automatic Thinking with Schemas 54 Which Schemas Do We Use? Accessibility and Priming 56 Making Our Schemas Come True: The Self-Fulfilling Prophecy 58
Types of Automatic Thinking 61 Automatic Goal Pursuit 62 Automatic Decision Making 63 Automatic Thinking and Metaphors About the Body and the Mind 63 Mental Strategies and Shortcuts: Judgmental Heuristics 65
how eaSilY doeS iT come To mind? The availaBiliTY heuRiSTic • how SimilaR iS a To B? The REpRESENTATivENESS hEuRiSTiC
Try IT! reasoning Quiz 69
peRSonaliTY TeSTS and The RepReSenTaTiveneSS hEuRiSTiC
Cultural Differences in Social Cognition 70 Cultural Determinants of Schemas 70 Holistic versus Analytic Thinking 71
Controlled Social Cognition: High-Effort Thinking 73 Controlled Thinking and Free Will 73
Try IT! Can you Predict your (or your Friend’s) Future? 76
Mentally Undoing the Past: Counterfactual Reasoning 76 Improving Human Thinking 77
Try IT! How Well Do you reason? 78
Watson Revisited 79 Summary 80 • Test Yourself 82
4 Social Perception: How We Come to Understand Other People 84
Nonverbal Communication 86 Try IT! Using your Voice as a Nonverbal Cue 87
Facial Expressions of Emotion 87 evoluTion and facial expReSSionS • whY iS decoding SomeTimeS difficulT?
Culture and the Channels of Nonverbal Communication 90
First Impressions: Quick but Long-Lasting 93 The Lingering Influence of Initial Impressions 94 Using First Impressions and Nonverbal Communication to Our Advantage 95
Contents
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vi Contents
Causal Attribution: Answering the “Why” Question 97 The Nature of the Attribution Process 97
Try IT! Listen as People Make Attributions 98
The Covariation Model: Internal versus External Attributions 98 The Fundamental Attribution Error: People as Personality Psychologists 101
ThE RoLE of pERCEpTuAL SALiENCE iN ThE fuNDAMENTAL aTTRiBuTion eRRoR • The Two-STep aTTRiBuTion pRoCESS
Self-Serving Attributions 106 The “Bias Blind Spot” 108
Culture and Social Perception 109 Holistic versus Analytic Thinking 110
SoCiAL NEuRoSCiENCE EviDENCE
Cultural Differences in the Fundamental Attribution Error 111 Culture and Other Attributional Biases 113 Summary 115 • Test Yourself 117
5 The Self: Understanding Ourselves in a Social Context 119
The Origins and Nature of the Self-Concept 120 Cultural Influences on the Self-Concept 122
Try IT! A Measure of Independence and Interdependence 123
Functions of the Self 124
Knowing Ourselves Through Introspection 125 Focusing on the Self: Self-Awareness Theory 125
Try IT! Measure your Private Self- Consciousness 127
Judging Why We Feel the Way We Do: Telling More Than We Can Know 127 The Consequences of Introspecting About Reasons 128
Knowing Ourselves by Observing Our Own Behavior 130 Intrinsic versus Extrinsic Motivation 131 Mindsets and Motivation 134 Understanding Our Emotions: The Two-Factor Theory of Emotion 134 Finding the Wrong Cause: Misattribution of Arousal 137
Using Other People to Know Ourselves 139 Knowing Ourselves by Comparing Ourselves to Others 140 Knowing Ourselves by Adopting Other People’s Views 141 Knowing Our Future Feelings by Consulting Other People 143
Self-Control: The Executive Function of the Self 144
Impression Management: All the World’s a Stage 146 Ingratiation and Self-Handicapping 147 Culture, Impression Management, and Self-Enhancement 149
Self-Esteem: How We Feel About Ourselves 150 Summary 153 • Test Yourself 155
6 The Need to Justify Our Actions: The Costs and Benefits of Dissonance Reduction 157
The Theory of Cognitive Dissonance 158 When Cognitions Conflict 158
whY we oveReSTimaTe The pain of diSappoinTmenT
Dissonance and the Self-Concept 162 Decisions, Decisions, Decisions 163
diSToRTing ouR likeS and diSlikeS • The peRmanence of ThE DECiSioN
Try IT! The Advantage of Finality 165
cReaTing The illuSion of iRRevocaBiliTY • The deciSion To Behave immoRallY
Dissonance, Culture, and the Brain 167 diSSonance in The BRain • diSSonance acRoSS CuLTuRES
Self-Justification in Everyday Life 169 The Justification of Effort 169
Try IT! Justifying What you’ve Done 171
External versus Internal Justification 171
counTeRaTTiTudinal advocacY
Punishment and Self-Persuasion 173 The laSTing effecTS of Self-peRSuaSion • NoT JuST TANgibLE REWARDS oR puNiShMENTS
The Hypocrisy Paradigm 176 Justifying Good Deeds and Harmful Acts 177
The Ben fRanklin effecT: JuSTifYing acTS of kindneSS
Try IT! The Internal Consequences of Doing Good 179
dehumanizing The enemY: JuSTifYing cRuelTY
Some Final Thoughts on Dissonance: Learning from Our Mistakes 181
poliTicS and Self-JuSTificaTion • ovERCoMiNg DiSSoNANCE
Summary 185 • Test Yourself 186
7 Attitudes and Attitude Change: Influencing Thoughts and Feelings 188
The Nature and Origin of Attitudes 190 Where Do Attitudes Come From? 190
cogniTivelY BaSed aTTiTudeS • affecTivelY BaSed ATTiTuDES
Try IT! Affective and Cognitive Bases of Attitudes 192
BehavioRallY BaSed aTTiTudeS
Explicit versus Implicit Attitudes 193
When Do Attitudes Predict Behavior? 195 Predicting Spontaneous Behaviors 196 Predicting Deliberative Behaviors 196
Specific aTTiTudeS • SuBJecTive noRmS • peRceived bEhAvioRAL CoNTRoL
How Do Attitudes Change? 199 Changing Attitudes by Changing Behavior: Cognitive Dissonance Theory Revisited 199 Persuasive Communications and Attitude Change 200
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vii
ThE CENTRAL AND pERiphERAL RouTES To peRSuaSion • The moTivaTion To paY aTTenTion To The aRgumenTS • The aBiliTY To paY aTTenTion To The aRgumenTS • how To achieve LoNg-LASTiNg ATTiTuDE ChANgE
Emotion and Attitude Change 205 feaR-aRouSing communicaTionS • emoTionS aS a heuRiSTic • emoTion and diffeRenT TYpeS of ATTiTuDES
Attitude Change and the Body 209
The Power of Advertising 210 How Advertising Works 211 Subliminal Advertising: A Form of Mind Control? 212
DEbuNkiNg ThE CLAiMS AbouT SubLiMiNAL adveRTiSing • laBoRaToRY evidence foR SuBliminal iNfLuENCE
Try IT! Consumer Brand Attitudes 215
Advertising, Stereotypes, and Culture 215 gendeR STeReoTYpeS and expecTaTionS • CuLTuRE AND ADvERTiSiNg
Resisting Persuasive Messages 219
Attitude Inoculation 219 Being Alert to Product Placement 219 Resisting Peer Pressure 220 When Persuasion Attempts Backfire: Reactance Theory 221 Summary 223 • Test Yourself 224
8 Conformity: Influencing Behavior 226 Conformity: When and Why 228
Informational Social Influence: The Need to Know What’s “Right” 230
The Importance of Being Accurate 233 When Informational Conformity Backfires 234 When Will People Conform to Informational Social Influence? 235
when The SiTuaTion iS amBiguouS • when The SiTuaTion iS a cRiSiS • when oTheR people aRe expeRTS
Normative Social Influence: The Need to Be Accepted 236
Conformity and Social Approval: The Asch Line-Judgment Studies 238 The Importance of Being Accurate, Revisited 241 The Consequences of Resisting Normative Social Influence 243
Try IT! Unveiling Normative Social Influence by Breaking the rules 244
When Will People Conform to Normative Social Influence? 244
when The gRoup gRowS laRgeR • when The gRoup iS impoRTanT • when one haS no allieS in The gRoup • WhEN ThE gRoup’S CuLTuRE iS CoLLECTiviSTiC
Minority Influence: When the Few Influence the Many 248
Strategies for Using Social Influence 249 The Role of Injunctive and Descriptive Norms 250
Using Norms to Change Behavior: Beware the “Boomerang Effect” 252 Other Tactics of Social Influence 253
Obedience to Authority 256 The Role of Normative Social Influence 259 The Role of Informational Social Influence 260 Other Reasons Why We Obey 261
confoRming To The wRong noRm • Self-JuSTificaTion • The loSS of peRSonal ReSponSiBiliTY
The Obedience Studies, Then and Now 263 iT’S NoT AbouT AggRESSioN
Summary 266 • Test Yourself 267
9 Group Processes: Influence in Social Groups 269
What Is a Group? 270 Why Do People Join Groups? 270 The Composition and Functions of Groups 271
Social noRmS • Social RoleS • gRoup coheSiveneSS • gRoup diveRSiTY
Individual Behavior in a Group Setting 275 Social Facilitation: When the Presence of Others Energizes Us 276
Simple veRSuS difficulT TaSkS • aRouSal and The dominanT ReSponSe • whY The pReSence of oThERS CAuSES ARouSAL
Social Loafing: When the Presence of Others Relaxes Us 279 Gender and Cultural Differences in Social Loafing: Who Slacks Off the Most? 280 Deindividuation: Getting Lost in the Crowd 281
DEiNDiviDuATioN MAkES pEopLE fEEL LESS accounTaBle • deindividuaTion incReaSeS oBedience To gRoup noRmS • deindividuaTion oNLiNE
Group Decisions: Are Two (or More) Heads Better Than One? 283
Process Loss: When Group Interactions Inhibit Good Problem Solving 284
failuRe To ShaRe unique infoRmaTion • gRoupThink: manY headS, one mind
Group Polarization: Going to Extremes 287 Leadership in Groups 289
leadeRShip and peRSonaliTY • leadeRShip STYleS • The RighT peRSon in The RighT SiTuaTion • gendeR and leadeRShip • culTuRe AND LEADERShip
Conflict and Cooperation 293 Social Dilemmas 293
Try IT! The Prisoner’s Dilemma 295
iNCREASiNg CoopERATioN iN ThE pRiSoNER’S DiLEMMA
Using Threats to Resolve Conflict 296
EffECTS of CoMMuNiCATioN
Negotiation and Bargaining 298 Summary 300 • Test Yourself 301
Contents vii
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10 Interpersonal Attraction: From First Impressions to Close Relationships 303
What Predicts Attraction? 305 The Person Next Door: The Propinquity Effect 306
Try IT! Mapping the Effect of Propinquity in your Life 306
Similarity 308 opinionS and peRSonaliTY • inTeReSTS and expeRienceS • appeaRance • geneTicS • Some final commenTS aBouT SimilaRiTY
Reciprocal Liking 310 Physical Attractiveness 311
whaT iS aTTRacTive? • culTuRal STandaRdS of BeauTY • The poweR of familiaRiTY • ASSuMpTioNS AbouT ATTRACTivE pEopLE
Evolution and Mate Selection 316 evoluTion and Sex diffeRenceS • alTeRnaTe pERSpECTivES oN SEx DiffERENCES
Making Connections in the Age of Technology 320 Attraction 2.0: Mate Preference in an Online Era 321 The Promise and Pitfalls of Online Dating 323
Love and Close Relationships 325 Defining Love: Companionship and Passion 325
Try IT! Passionate Love Scale 327
Culture and Love 327 Attachment Styles in Intimate Relationships 329 This Is Your Brain . . . in Love 331 Theories of Relationship Satisfaction: Social Exchange and Equity 332
Social exchange TheoRY • equiTY TheoRY
Ending Intimate Relationships 338 The Process of Breaking Up 338 The Experience of Breaking Up 339 Summary 341 • Test Yourself 342
11 Prosocial Behavior: Why Do People Help? 344
Basic Motives Underlying Prosocial Behavior: Why Do People Help? 345
Evolutionary Psychology: Instincts and Genes 346 kin SelecTion • The RecipRociTY noRm
Try IT! The Dictator Game 347
gRoup SELECTioN
Social Exchange: The Costs and Rewards of Helping 348 Empathy and Altruism: The Pure Motive for Helping 349
Personal Qualities and Prosocial Behavior: Why Do Some People Help More Than Others? 353
Individual Differences: The Altruistic Personality 354 Try IT! Empathic Concern 354
Gender Differences in Prosocial Behavior 355
Cultural Differences in Prosocial Behavior 355 Religion and Prosocial Behavior 357 The Effects of Mood on Prosocial Behavior 357
effecTS of poSiTive moodS: feel good, do good • fEEL bAD, Do gooD
Situational Determinants of Prosocial Behavior: When Will People Help? 359
Environment: Rural versus Urban 359 Residential Mobility 360 The Number of Bystanders: The Bystander Effect 361
noTicing an evenT • inTeRpReTing The evenT aS an emeRgencY • aSSuming ReSponSiBiliTY • knowing how To help • deciding To implemenT The help
Effects of the Media: Video Games and Music Lyrics 366
How Can Helping Be Increased? 368 Increasing the Likelihood That Bystanders Will Intervene 368 Increasing Volunteerism 370 Positive Psychology, Human Virtues, and Prosocial Behavior 371 Summary 372 • Test Yourself 373
12 Aggression: Why Do We Hurt Other People? Can We Prevent It? 375
Is Aggression Innate, Learned, or Optional? 376 The Evolutionary View 377
AggRESSioN iN oThER ANiMALS
Culture and Aggression 378 ChANgES iN AggRESSioN ACRoSS TiME and culTuReS • culTuReS of honoR
Gender and Aggression 381 phYSical aggReSSion • RELATioNAL AggRESSioN
Try IT! Do Women and Men Differ in Their Experiences with Aggression? 383
Learning to Behave Aggressively 383 Some Physiological Influences 385
The effecTS of alcohol • The effecTS of pAiN AND hEAT
Social Situations and Aggression 387 Frustration and Aggression 388 Provocation and Reciprocation 389
Try IT! Insults and Aggression 390
Weapons as Aggressive Cues 390 Putting the Elements Together: The Case of Sexual Assault 391
moTivaTionS foR Rape • Sexual ScRipTS and The pRoBlem of conSenT • puTTing ThE ELEMENTS TogEThER
Violence and the Media 394 Studying the Effects of Media Violence 394
expeRimenTal STudieS • longiTudinal STudieS
The Problem of Determining Cause and Effect 397
viii Contents
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How to Decrease Aggression 399 Does Punishing Aggression Reduce Aggression? 399
uSiNg puNiShMENT oN vioLENT ADuLTS
Catharsis and Aggression 401 ThE EffECTS of AggRESSivE ACTS oN SubSEquENT aggReSSion • Blaming The vicTim of ouR AggRESSioN
What Are We Supposed to Do with Our Anger? 403 vENTiNg vERSuS SELf-AWARENESS
Try IT! Controlling your Anger 404
TRAiNiNg iN CoMMuNiCATioN AND pRobLEM-SoLviNg SkillS • counTeRing dehumanizaTion BY Building empaThY
Disrupting the Rejection-Rage Cycle 406 Summary 408 • Test Yourself 411
13 Prejudice: Causes, Consequences, and Cures 413
Defining Prejudice 414 The Cognitive Component: Stereotypes 415
fRom caTegoRieS To STeReoTYpeS
Try IT! Stereotypes and Aggression 417
whaT’S wRong wiTh poSiTive STeReoTYpeS? • STeReoTYpeS of gendeR
The Affective Component: Emotions 420
Try IT! Identifying your Prejudices 421
The Behavioral Component: Discrimination 421 Racial diScRiminaTion • gendeR diScRiminaTion • ThE ACTivATioN of pREJuDiCE
Detecting Hidden Prejudices 427 Ways of Identifying Suppressed Prejudices 427 Ways of Identifying Implicit Prejudices 428
The Effects of Prejudice on the Victim 430 The Self-Fulfilling Prophecy 430 Stereotype Threat 431
Causes of Prejudice 434 Pressures to Conform: Normative Rules 434 Social Identity Theory: Us versus Them 436
eThnocenTRiSm • in-gRoup BiaS • ouT-gRoup homogeneiTY • Blaming The vicTim • JuSTifYing feelingS of enTiTlemenT and SupeRioRiTY
Realistic Conflict Theory 440 ECoNoMiC AND poLiTiCAL CoMpETiTioN
Reducing Prejudice 442 The Contact Hypothesis 443 When Contact Reduces Prejudice 445
WhERE DESEgREgATioN WENT WRoNg
Cooperation and Interdependence: The Jigsaw Classroom 447
whY doeS JigSaw woRk?
Try IT! Jigsaw-Type Group Study 449
ThE gRADuAL SpREAD of CoopERATivE AND iNTERDEpENDENT LEARNiNg
Summary 451 • Test Yourself 453
Social Psychology in Action 1 Using Social Psychology to Achieve a Sustainable and Happy Future 455
Applied Research in Social Psychology 458 Capitalizing on the Experimental Method 459
ASSESSiNg ThE EffECTivENESS of inTeRvenTionS • poTenTial RiSkS of Social iNTERvENTioNS
Social Psychology to the Rescue 461
Using Social Psychology to Achieve a Sustainable Future 461
Conveying and Changing Social Norms 462
Try IT! reducing Littering with Descriptive Norms 463
Keeping Track of Consumption 464 Introducing a Little Competitiveness 465 Inducing Hypocrisy 465 Removing Small Barriers to Achieve Big Changes 467
Happiness and a Sustainable Lifestyle 469 What Makes People Happy? 469
SaTiSfYing RelaTionShipS • flow: Becoming engaged in SomeThing You enJoY • accumulaTe expeRienceS, noT ThingS • helping oTheRS
Try IT! Applying the research to your Own Life 472
Do People Know What Makes Them Happy? 472 Summary 473 • Test Yourself 474
Social Psychology in Action 2 Social Psychology and Health 476
Stress and Human Health 477 Resilience 478 Effects of Negative Life Events 479
Try IT! The College Life Stress Inventory 480
LiMiTS of STRESS iNvENToRiES
Perceived Stress and Health 481 Feeling in Charge: The Importance of Perceived Control 482
iNCREASiNg pERCEivED CoNTRoL iN nuRSing homeS • diSeaSe, conTRol, and WELL-bEiNg
Coping with Stress 486 Gender Differences in Coping with Stress 487 Social Support: Getting Help from Others 487
Try IT! Social Support 488
Reframing: Finding Meaning in Traumatic Events 489
Prevention: Promoting Healthier Behavior 491 Summary 493 • Test Yourself 494
Contents ix
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Social Psychology in Action 3 Social Psychology and the Law 496
Eyewitness Testimony 498 Why Are Eyewitnesses Often Wrong? 498
acquiSiTion • SToRage • ReTRieval
Judging Whether Eyewitnesses Are Mistaken 503 ReSponding quicklY • The pRoBlem wiTh veRBalizaTion • poST-idenTificaTion fEEDbACk
Try IT! The Accuracy of Eyewitness Testimony 506
The Recovered Memory Debate 506
Juries: Group Processes in Action 509 How Jurors Process Information During the Trial 509 Confessions: Are They Always What They Seem? 510 Deliberations in the Jury Room 512 Summary 513 • Test Yourself 514
Glossary 516
References 522
Credits 567
Name Index 573
Subject Index 588
Answer Key AK-1
x Contents
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xi
Preface
When we began writing this book, our overrid-ing goal was to capture the excitement of social psychology. We have been pleased to hear, in many kind letters and e-mail messages from professors and students, that we succeeded. One of our favorite responses was from a student who said that the book was so inter- esting that she always saved it for last, to reward herself for finishing her other work. With that one student, at least, we succeeded in making our book an enjoyable, fascinating story, not a dry report of facts and figures.
There is always room for improvement, however, and our goal in this, the ninth edition, is to make the field of social psychology an even better read. When we teach the course, there is nothing more gratifying than seeing the sleepy stu- dents in the back row sit up with interest and say, “Wow, I didn’t know that! Now that’s interesting.” We hope that students who read our book will have that same reaction.
What’s New in This Edition? We are pleased to add new features to the ninth edition that we believe will appeal to students and make it easier for them to learn the material. Each chapter begins with some learning objectives, which are repeated in the sections of the chapter that are most relevant to them and in the chapter- ending summary. All major sections of every chapter now end with review quizzes. Research shows that students learn material better when they are tested frequently, thus these section quizzes, as well as the test questions at the end of every chapter, should be helpful learning aids. Every chapter now has several writing prompts that instructors can decide to assign or not. In addition, we have retained and refined features that proved to be popular in the pre- vious edition. For example, many of the Try It! exercises, which invite students to apply specific concepts to their everyday behavior, have been revised or replaced.
We have updated the ninth edition substantially, with numerous references to new research. Here is a sampling of the new research that is covered:
• A signature of our book continues to be Chapter 2, “Methodology: How Social Psychologists Do Research,” a readable, student-friendly chapter on social psychol- ogy research methods. This chapter has been updated for the ninth edition with new references and examples.
• Chapter 3, “Social Cognition: How We Think About the Social World,” has been reorganized to make the struc- ture clearer to students. There are now four major sec- tions: On Automatic Pilot: Low-Effort Thinking; Types of Automatic Thinking, Cultural Differences in Social Cognition, and Controlled Social Thinking. There are
also new sections on automatic goal pursuit and deci- sion making. Finally, the chapter has been updated with numerous new references.
• Chapter 4, “Social Perception: How We Come to Un- derstand Other People,” now includes a new section on “First Impressions: Quick but Long-Lasting,” with new coverage of thin-slicing, belief perseverance, and the use of nonverbal communication to personal advantage (e.g., in the form of power posing). The chapter also pre- sents updated research and conclusions regarding the universality of emotional expression, and new popular media examples from programs such as Breaking Bad, Duck Dynasty, and the podcast Serial.
• Chapter 5, “The Self: Understanding Ourselves in a So- cial Context,” has been reorganized into seven major sections instead of five, which should make the mate- rial clearer to students. We also revised the opening example, added a section on affective forecasting, re- organized some of the other sections (e.g., on culture and the self and on mindsets), added two new figures, and deleted or consolidated two other figures. Nearly 50 references to recent research have been added.
• Chapter 6, “The Need to Justify Our Actions,” now in- cludes a revised definition of cognitive dissonance and two dozen new references. These updates include stud- ies examining dissonance and cheating, hypocrisy and its consequences for self-justification, the justification of kindness in very young children, and a field study of jus- tification of effort among participants in a religious ritual in Mauritius.
• Chapter 7, “Attitudes and Attitude Change: Influencing Thoughts and Feelings,” includes some reorganization of section order in response to reviewer suggestions and an updated analysis of advertising, stereotypes, and culture. New Try It! exercises have also been added regarding the role of automatic thought processes in consumer-related attitudes.
• Chapter 8, “Conformity: Influencing Behavior,” now boasts a new section on tactics of social influence, in- cluding the foot-in-the-door and door-in-the-face tech- nique. We have also added review of the Bond et al. (2012) election study in which the appearance of an “I Voted” button on Facebook was found to influence users’ own likelihood of voting. This chapter also dis- cusses the role of normative social influence in the polar plunge trend and the ALS ice bucket challenge that went viral on social media in 2014.
• Chapter 9, “Group Processes: Influence in Social Groups,” includes a new section on the relationship between group diversity, morale, and performance. The discussion of deindividuation has also been updated to consider the tendency as it is manifested in on-line contexts.
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xii preface
• Chapter 10, “Interpersonal Attraction: From First Im- pressions to Close Relationships,” has a new opening vignette focusing on Tinder and other dating-related apps/websites. We have expanded the treatment of fer- tility and attraction in response to reviewer feedback, and also added new research on the relationship be- tween genetic similarity and attraction.
• In Chapter 11, “Prosocial Behavior: Why Do People Help?” we substantially revised the sections on religion and prosocial behavior and on positive psychology. We now discuss recent research by van den Bos on appraisal and bystander intervention and recent media examples, such as a mention of the movie Kick Ass.
• Chapter 12, “Aggression: Why Do We Hurt Other Peo- ple? Can We Prevent It?,” has undergone significant organizational changes across the entire chapter for clarity and narrative flow. The first section now uni- fies various answers to the question of the origins of aggression—evolutionary, cultural, learned, physi- ological influences—with special attention to gender and aggression (similarities as well as the familiar dif- ferences). We have also added a section, “Putting the Elements Together: The Case of Sexual Assault.” Here we not only updated the references but also added the latest studies about causes of rape and sexual assault; sexual scripts; and a 2015 review of research on sexual miscommunications.
• In Chapter 13, “Prejudice: Causes, Consequences, and Cures,” we have added more on the Implicit Associa- tion Test (IAT) as it relates to measuring implicit bias. The chapter also now includes more social neuroscience research on social categorization and expands its dis- cussion of the effects of prejudice on its targets. Several new glossary entries have been added to reflect these updates.
• Social Psychology in Action chapters—“Using Social Psychology to Achieve a Sustainable and Happy Fu- ture,” “Social Psychology and Health,” and “Social Psychology and the Law”—have been updated with many references to new research, but remain shorter chapters. When we teach the course, we find that stu- dents are excited to learn about these applied areas. At the same time, we recognize that some instructors have difficulty fitting the chapters into their courses. As with the previous edition, our approach remains to maintain a shortened length for the applied chap- ters to make it easy to integrate these chapters into different parts of the course in whatever fashion an instructor deems best. SPA1, “Using Social Psychology to Achieve a Sustainable and Happy Future,” has a new opening example about the effects of climate change on U.S. cities and a new discussion of how experiences make people happier than material things. In SPA2, “Social Psychology and Health,” we revised the sections on perceived control, “tend and befriend” responses to stress, and behavioral causes of health problems. SPA3, “Social Psychology and Law,” has updated information on the role of post-identification feedback on eyewit- ness confidence and revised conclusions regarding the repressed memory debate.
REVEL™ Educational technology designed for the way today’s students read, think, and learn When students are engaged deeply, they learn more effec- tively and perform better in their courses. This simple fact inspired the creation of REVEL: an immersive learning ex- perience designed for the way today’s students read, think, and learn. Built in collaboration with educators and stu- dents nationwide, REVEL is the newest, fully digital way to deliver respected Pearson content.
REVEL enlivens course content with media interactives and assessments—integrated directly within the authors’ narrative—that provide opportunities for students to read about and practice course material in tandem. This immer- sive educational technology boosts student engagement, which leads to better understanding of concepts and im- proved performance throughout the course.
We are proud to release the ninth edition of Social Psychol- ogy in REVEL. This version of the book includes integrated videos and media content throughout, allowing students to explore topics more deeply at the point of relevancy. All of the interactive content in REVEL was carefully written and designed by the authors themselves, ensuring that students will receive the most effective presentation of the content in each chapter. Videos were also carefully selected by the au- thor team, and several of them were filmed specifically for the ninth edition in REVEL.
REVEL also offers the ability for students to assess their content mastery by taking multiple-choice quizzes that of- fer instant feedback and by participating in a variety of writing assignments such as peer- reviewed questions and auto-graded assignments.
Learn More About REVEL http://www.pearsonhighered.com/revel/
Actor A
Actor B
ObserverB
ObserverA + B
ObserverA
ObserverB
ObserverA + B
ObserverA
This hands-on interactive helps students understand a well-known study on perceptual salience by giving them additional pop-up information when they click on a particular participant perspective.
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preface xiii
Teaching and Learning Resources A really good textbook should become part of the classroom experience, supporting and augmenting the professor’s vision for the class. Social Psychology offers a number of sup- plements that enrich both the professor’s presentation of social psychology and the students’ understanding of it.
MyPsychLab® • MyPsychLab (013401264X) combines proven learning
applications with powerful assessment to engage stu- dents, assess their learning, and help them succeed.
• An individualized study plan for each student, based on performance on chapter pre-tests, helps students focus on the specific topics where they need the most support. The personalized study plan arranges content from less complex thinking—like remembering and un- derstanding—to more complex critical-thinking skills— like applying and analyzing—and is based on Bloom’s taxonomy. Every level of the study plan provides a formative assessment quiz.
• Media assignments for each chapter—including videos with assignable questions—feed directly into the grade- book, enabling instructors to track student progress au- tomatically.
• The Pearson eText (0134012631) lets students access their textbook anytime and anywhere, and in any way they want, including listening online.
• Designed to help you develop and assess concept mas- tery and critical thinking, the Writing Space offers a single place to create, track, and grade writing assign- ments, provide resources, and exchange meaningful, personalized feedback with students, quickly and easily. Thanks to auto-graded, assisted-graded, and
create-your-own assignments, you decide your level of involvement in evaluating students’ work. The au- to-graded option allows you to assign writing in large classes without having to grade essays by hand. And because of integration with Turnitin®, Writing Space can check students’ work for improper citation or pla- giarism.
Instructor Resources We know that instructors are “tour guides” for their stu- dents, leading them through the exciting world of social psychology in the classroom. As such, we have invested tremendous effort in the creation of a world-class collection of instructor resources that will support professors in their mission to teach the best course possible.
For this edition, new coauthor Sam Sommers guided the creation of the supplements package. Here are the high- lights of the supplements we are pleased to provide:
PRESEnTATIOn TOOLS AnD CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES
• MyPsychLab Video Series for Social Psychology (0205847021) Current and cutting edge, the new MyPsychLab Video Series for social psychology features videos covering the most recent research, science, and applications. Watch clips from ABC’s wildly popular What Would You Do? series and discover how real peo- ple in real-world scenarios bring to life classic concepts in social psychology. The video series is also available to adopters on a DVD. Contact your Pearson representa- tive for more information.
• Social Psychology PowerPoint Collection (0134012348) The PowerPoints provide an active format for presenting concepts from each chapter and incorporating relevant figures and tables. Instructors can choose from three PowerPoint presentations: a lecture presentation set that
This edition of Social Psychology offers a variety of video types includ- ing interviews, as shown here with our lead author Elliot Aronson; news segments; and original lab experiment re-enactments directed by the authors and filmed at Tufts University.
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highlights major topics from the chapters, a highly visu- al lecture presentation set with embedded videos, or a PowerPoint collection of the complete art files from the text. The PowerPoint files can be downloaded from www .pearsonhighered.com.
• Instructor’s Resource Manual (0134012445) The In- structor’s Manual includes key terms, lecture ideas, teaching tips, suggested readings, chapter outlines, stu- dent projects and research assignments, Try It! exercises, critical thinking topics and discussion questions, and a media resource guide. It has been updated for the ninth edition with hyperlinks to ease facilitation of navigation within the IM.
ASSESSMEnT RESOuRCES
• Test Bank (0134012453) Each of the more than 2,000 questions in this test bank is page-referenced to the text and categorized by topic and skill level. Each question in the test bank was reviewed by several instructors to ensure that we are providing you with the best and most accurate content in the industry.
• MyTest Test Bank (0134012437) This Web-based test- generating software provides instructors “best in class” features in an easy-to-use program. Create tests and eas- ily select questions with drag-and-drop or point-and- click functionality. Add or modify test questions using the built-in Question Editor, and print tests in a vari- ety of formats. The program comes with full technical support.
LEARnIng CATALyTICS
• Learning Catalytics™ is an interactive, student-response tool that uses students’ smartphones, tablets, or laptops to engage them in more sophisticated tasks and think- ing. Now included with MyLab & with eText, Learning Catalytics enables you to generate classroom discussion, guide your lecture, and promote peer-to-peer learning with real-time analytics. Instructors, you can:
• Pose a variety of open-ended questions that help your students develop critical thinking skills.
• Monitor responses to find out where students are struggling.
• Use real-time data to adjust your instructional strat- egy and try other ways of engaging your students during class.
• Manage student interactions by automatically group- ing students for discussion, teamwork, and peer-to- peer learning.
Acknowledgments Elliot Aronson is delighted to acknowledge the collabora- tion of Carol Tavris in helping him update this edition. He would also like to acknowledge the contributions of his best friend (who also happens to be his wife of 60 years), Vera Aronson. Vera, as usual, provided inspiration for his ideas and acted as the sounding board for and supportive critic of many of his semiformed notions, helping to mold them into more-sensible analyses.
Tim Wilson would like to thank his graduate mentor, Richard E. Nisbett, who nurtured his interest in the field and showed him the continuity between social psychologi- cal research and everyday life. He also thanks the many stu- dents who have taken his course in social psychology over the years, for asking fascinating questions and providing wonderful examples of social psychological phenomena in their everyday lives. Lastly, he thanks the many graduate students with whom he has had the privilege of working for joining him in the ever-fascinating discovery of new so- cial psychological phenomena.
Robin Akert is beholden to Jonathan Cheek, Julie Don- nelly, Nan Vaida, Melody Tortosa, and Lila McCain for their feedback and advice, and to her family, Michaela and Wayne Akert, and Linda and Jerry Wuichet; their enthu- siasm and boundless support have sustained her on this project as on all the ones before it. Finally, she wishes to ex- press her gratitude to Dane Archer—mentor, colleague, and friend—who opened the world of social psychology to her and who has been her guide ever since.
Sam Sommers would like to acknowledge, first and foremost, the lovely Sommers ladies, Marilyn, Abigail, and Sophia, for being patient with round-the-clock revision ses- sions, for tolerating the constantly expanding mass of pa- pers and books on the floor of the study (he promises to clean them up before work starts on the tenth edition), and for frequently providing excellent real-life examples that illustrate social psychological concepts. He also gives spe- cial thanks to all of his teachers of social psychology, for in- troducing him to the field, for continued support, and for serving as role models as instructors, mentors, researchers, and writers.
No book can be written and published without the help of many people working with the authors behind the scenes, and our book is no exception. We would like to thank the many colleagues who read one or more chapters of this edition and of previous editions of the book.
Reviewers of the Ninth Edition Jim Allen, State University of New York, College at Geneseo; Kathryn Anderson, Our Lady of the Lake University; Anila Bhagavatula, California State University–Long Beach; Amy Bradshaw-Hoppock, Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University; Ngoc Bui, University of La Verne; Bernardo Carducci, Indiana Univer- sity Southeast; Alex Czopp, Western Washington University; Keith Davis, University of South Carolina; Michael Dudley, Southern Illinois University Edwardsville; Heidi English, College of the Siskiyous; Joe Ferrari, DePaul University; Christine Floether, Centenary College; Krista Forrest, University of Nebraska at Kearney; Allen Gorman, Radford University; Jerry Green, Tarrant County College; Dana Greene, University of North Carolina; Donnell Griffin, Davidson County Community College; Lisa Harrison, California State University, Sacramento; Gina Hoover, Ohio State University; Jeffrey Huntsinger, Loyola University Chicago; Alisha Janowsky, University of Central Florida; Bethany Johnson, University of Nebraska–Omaha; Deborah Jones, Columbia University; Suzanne Kieffer, University of Houston; Marvin Lee, Tennessee State Uni- versity; Alexandra Luong, University of Minnesota Duluth; Robyn Mallett, Loyola University Chicago; Brian Meier, Gettysburg College; Andrea Mercurio, Boston University; Lori Nelson, University of Iowa; Darren Petronella, Nassau Community Col- lege; Jennifer Rivers, Elms College; Kari Terzino, Des Moines Area
xiv preface
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Community College; T. Joel Wade, Bucknell University; Angela Walker, Quinnipiac University; Chrysalis Wright, University of Central Florida; Garry Zaslow, Nassau Community College; Jie Zhang, University at Buffalo
Reviewers of Past Editions Jeffrey B. Adams, Saint Michael’s College; Bill Adler, Collin County Community College; John R. Aiello, Rutgers University; Charles A. Alexander, Rock Valley College; Sowmya Anand, Ohio State University; Nathan Arbuckle, Ohio State University; Art Aron, State University of New York, Stony Brook; Danny Axsom, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University; Joan W. Baily, Jersey City State College; Norma Baker, Belmont Uni- versity; Austin Baldwin, University of Iowa; John Bargh, New York University; William A. Barnard, University of Northern Colorado; Doris G. Bazzini, Appalachian State University; Arthur Beaman, University of Kentucky; Gordon Bear, Ramapo College; Susan E. Beers, Sweet Briar College; Kathy L. Bell, University of North Carolina at Greensboro; Leonard Berkowitz, University of Wisconsin–Madison; Ellen S. Berscheid, University of Minnesota; John Bickford, University of Massachusetts, Amherst; Thomas Blass, University of Maryland; C. George Boeree, Ship- pensburg University; Lisa M. Bohon, California State University, Sacramento; Jennifer Bosson, The University of Oklahoma; Chante C. Boyd, Carnegie Mellon University; Peter J. Brady, Clark State Community College; Kosha Bramesfeld, Pennsylva- nia State University; Kelly A. Brennan, University of Texas, Aus- tin; Richard W. Brislin, East-West Center of the University of Hawaii; Jeff Bryson, San Diego State University; Melissa Burkley, Oklahoma State University; Amy Bush, University of Houston; Amber Bush Amspoker, University of Houston; Brad Bushman, Iowa State University; Thomas P. Cafferty, University of South Carolina, Columbia; Melissa A. Cahoon, Wright State University; Frank Calabrese, Community College of Philadelphia; Michael Caruso, University of Toledo; Nicholas Christenfeld, University of California, San Diego; Margaret S. Clark, Carnegie Mellon University; Russell D. Clark, III, University of North Texas; Susan D. Clayton, Allegheny College; Megan Clegg-Kraynok, West Virginia University; Brian M. Cohen, University of Texas, San Antonio; Florette Cohen, Rutgers Uni- versity; Jack Cohen, Camden County College; Steven G. Cole, Texas Christian University; Eric J. Cooley, Western Oregon State University; Diana Cordova, Yale University; Traci Craig, Univer- sity of Idaho; Jack Croxton, State University of New York, Fredonia; Keith E. Davis, University of South Carolina, Columbia; Mary Ellen Dello Stritto, Ball State University; Dorothee Dietrich, Hamline University; Kate Dockery, University of Florida; Susann Doyle, Gainesville College; Steve Duck, University of Iowa; Michael G. Dudley, Southern Illinois University Edwardsville; Karen G. Duffy, State University of New York, Geneseo; Valerie Eastman, Drury College; Tami Eggleston, McKendree College; Timothy Elliot, University of Alabama–Birmingham; Steve L. Ellyson, Youngstown State University; Cindy Elrod, Georgia State University; Kadimah Elson, University of California, San Diego/Grossmont College; Rebecca S. Fahrlander, University of Nebraska at Omaha; Alan Feingold, Yale University; Edward Fernandes, East Carolina University; Phil Finney, Southeast Missouri State University; Susan Fiske, University of Massachu- setts; Robin Franck, Southwestern College; Denise Frank, Ramapo College of New Jersey; Timothy M. Franz, St. John Fisher College; William Rick Fry, Youngstown State University; Russell Geen, University of Missouri; Glenn Geher, State University of
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We also thank the wonderful editorial staff of Pearson for their expertise and professionalism, including Dickson Musslewhite (Editorial Director), Diane Szulecki (Program Manager), Lindsey Prudhomme Gill (Product Marketing Manager), Luke Robbins (Editorial Assistant), Christopher Fegan (Digital Product Manager), and Shelly Kupperman (Project Manager). We would especially like to thank Mary Piper Hansen (Developmental Editor), who provided ex- pert guidance with constant good cheer and insight even
through barrages of e-mail exchanges and attachments, and Amber Chow (Executive Editor), whose smart vision for the book, and commitment to making it as good as it can be, have truly made a difference. Finally, we thank Mary Falcon, but for whom we never would have begun this project.
Thank you for inviting us into your classroom. We wel- come your suggestions, and we would be delighted to hear your comments about this book.
xvi preface
Elliot Aronson elliot@cats.ucsc.edu
Tim Wilson tdw@virginia.edu
Robin Akert rakert@wellesley.edu
Sam Sommers sam.sommers@tufts.edu
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xvii
neat,” they said. “We broke a window and nobody cared!” My friend and I hopped onto our bikes to investigate. We had no trouble finding the house—there it was, sitting off by itself, with a big, jagged hole in a first-floor window. We got off of our bikes and looked around. My friend found a baseball-sized rock lying on the ground and threw a per- fect strike through another first-floor window. There was something exhilarating about the smash-and-tingle of shat- tering glass, especially when we knew there was nothing wrong with what we were doing. After all, the house was abandoned, wasn’t it? We broke nearly every window in the house and then climbed through one of the first-floor windows to look around.
It was then that we realized something was terribly wrong. The house certainly did not look abandoned. There were pictures on the wall, nice furniture, books in shelves. We went home feeling frightened and confused. We soon learned that the house was the home of an elderly couple who were away on vacation. Eventually, my parents dis- covered what we had done and paid a substantial sum to repair the windows. For years, I pondered this incident: Why did I do such a terrible thing? Was I a bad kid? I didn’t think so, and neither did my parents. How, then, could a good kid do such a bad thing? Even though the neighbor- hood kids said the house was abandoned, why couldn’t my friend and I see the clear signs that someone lived there? How crucial was it that my friend was there and threw the first rock? Although I didn’t know it at the time, these re- flections touched on several classic social psychological issues, such as whether only bad people do bad things, whether the social situation can be powerful enough to make good people do bad things, and the way in which our expectations about an event can make it difficult to see it as it really is. Fortunately, my career as a vandal ended with this one incident. It did, however, mark the beginning of my fascination with basic questions about how people understand themselves and the social world—questions I continue to investigate to this day.
Tim Wilson did his undergraduate work at Williams College and Hampshire College and received his PhD from the University of Michigan. Currently Sherrell J. Aston Professor of Psychology at the University of Virginia, he has published numerous articles in the areas of introspection, attitude change, self-knowledge, and affec- tive forecasting, as well as a recent book, Redirect: The Surprising New Science of Psychological Change. His research has received the support of the National Science Foundation and the National Institute for Mental Health. He has been elected twice to the Execu- tive Board of the Society for Experimental Social Psychology and is a Fellow in the American Psychological Society and the Society for Personality and Social Psychology. In 2009, he was named a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. In 2015 he received the William James Fellows Award from the Association for Psycho- logical Science. Wilson has taught the Introduction to Social Psy- chology course at the University of Virginia for more than 30 years. In 2001 he was awarded the University of Virginia All-University Outstanding Teaching Award, and in 2010 was awarded the Uni- versity of Virginia Distinguished Scientist Award.
Elliot Aronson When I was a kid, we were the only Jewish family in a viru- lently anti-Semitic neighborhood. I had to go to Hebrew school every day, late in the afternoon. Being the only youngster in my neighborhood going to Hebrew school made me an easy target for some of the older neighborhood toughs. On my way home from Hebrew school, after dark, I was frequently way- laid and roughed up by roving gangs shouting anti-Semitic epithets.
I have a vivid memory of sitting on a curb after one of these beatings, nursing a bloody nose or a split lip, feel- ing very sorry for myself and wondering how these kids could hate me so much when they didn’t even know me. I thought about whether those kids were taught to hate Jews or whether, somehow, they were born that way. I wondered if their hatred could be changed—if they got to know me better, would they hate me less? I speculated about my own character. What would I have done if the shoe were on the other foot—that is, if I were bigger and stronger than they, would I be capable of beating them up for no good reason?
I didn’t realize it at the time, of course, but eventually I discovered that these were profound questions. And some 30 years later, as an experimental social psychologist, I had the great good fortune to be in a position to answer some of those questions and to invent techniques to reduce the kind of prejudice that had claimed me as a victim.
Elliot Aronson is Professor Emeritus at the University of Califor- nia at Santa Cruz and one of the most renowned social psychologists in the world. In 2002, he was chosen as one of the 100 most eminent psychologists of the twentieth century. Dr. Aronson is the only per- son in the 120-year history of the American Psychological Associa- tion to have received all three of its major awards: for distinguished writing, distinguished teaching, and distinguished research. Many other professional societies have honored his research and teaching as well. These include the American Association for the Advancement of Science, which gave him its highest honor, the Distinguished Scientific Research award; the American Council for the Advancement and Sup- port of Education, which named him Professor of the Year of 1989; the Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues, which awarded him the Gordon Allport prize for his contributions to the reduction of prejudice among racial and ethnic groups; and the William James Award from the Association for Psychological Science. In 1992, he was named a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. A col- lection of papers and tributes by his former students and colleagues, The Scientist and the Humanist, celebrates his contributions to social psychological theory and its application to real-world prob- lems. Dr. Aronson’s own recent books for general audiences include Mistakes Were Made (but not by ME), with Carol Tavris, and a memoir, Not by Chance Alone: My Life as a Social Psychologist.
Tim Wilson One day when I was 8, a couple of older kids rode up on their bikes to share some big news: They had discovered an abandoned house down a country road. “It’s really
About the Authors
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xviii About the Authors
Robin Akert One fall day when I was about 16, I was walking with a friend along the shore of the San Francisco Bay. Deep in conversa- tion, I glanced over my shoulder and saw a sailboat capsize. I pointed it out to my friend, who took only a perfunctory interest and went on talking. However, I kept watching as we walked, and I realized that the two sailors were in the water, clinging to the capsized boat. Again I said something to my friend, who replied, “Oh, they’ll get it upright—don’t worry.”
But I was worried. Was this an emergency? My friend didn’t think so. And I was no sailor; I knew nothing about boats. But I kept thinking, “That water is really cold. They can’t stay in that water too long.” I remember feeling very confused and unsure. What should I do? Should I do any- thing? Did they really need help?
We were near a restaurant with a big window overlook- ing the bay, and I decided to go in and see if anyone had done anything about the boat. Lots of people were watching but not doing anything. This confused me too. Meekly, I asked the bartender to call for some kind of help. He just shrugged. I went back to the window and watched the two small figures in the water. Why was everyone so unconcerned? Was I crazy?
Years later, I reflected on how hard it was for me to do what I did next: I demanded that the bartender let me use his phone. In those days before “911,” it was lucky that I knew there was a Coast Guard station on the bay, and I asked the operator for the number. I was relieved to hear the Guardsman take my message very seriously.
It had been an emergency. I watched as the Coast Guard cutter sped across the bay and pulled the two sailors out of the water. Maybe I saved their lives that day. What really stuck with me over the years was how other people behaved and how it made me feel. The other bystanders seemed un- concerned and did nothing to help. Their reactions made me doubt myself and made it harder for me to decide to take ac- tion. When I later studied social psychology in college, I re- alized that on the shore of the San Francisco Bay that day, I had experienced the “bystander effect” fully: The presence of other, apparently unconcerned bystanders had made it diffi- cult for me to decide if the situation was an emergency and whether it was my responsibility to help.
Robin Akert graduated summa cum laude from the University of California at Santa Cruz, where she majored in psychology and so- ciology. She received her PhD in experimental social psychology from Princeton University. She is currently a Professor of Psychology at Wellesley College, where she was awarded the Pinanski Prize for Ex- cellence in Teaching early in her career. She publishes primarily in the area of nonverbal communication, and recently received the AAUW American Fellowship in support of her research. She has taught the social psychology course at Wellesley College for nearly 30 years.
Sam Sommers I went to college to major in English. I only found myself in an Intro to Psychology course as a second-semester freshman because, well, it just seemed like the kind of thing you did as a second-semester freshman. It was when we got to the social psychology section of the course that a little voice in my head starting whispering something along the lines of, Hey, you’ve gotta admit this is pretty good stuff. It’s a lot like the conversations you have with your friends about daily life, but with scientific data.
As part of the class, we had the opportunity to partici- pate in research studies for course credit. So one day I found myself in an interaction study in which I was going to work on solving problems with a partner. I walked in and it was clear that the other guy had arrived earlier—his coat and bag were already hanging on the back of a chair. I was led to another, smaller room and shown a video of my soon-to-be partner. Then I was given a series of written questions about my perceptions of him, my expectations for our upcoming session together, and so forth. Finally, I walked back into the main area. The experimenter handed me a chair and told me to put it down anywhere next to my partner’s chair, and that she would go get him (he, too, was presumably completing written questionnaires in a private room).
So I did. I put my chair down, took a seat, and waited. Then the experimenter returned, but she was alone. She told me the study was over. There was no other participant; there would be no problem-solving in pairs. The video I had watched was of an actor, and in some versions of the study he mentioned having a girlfriend. In other versions, he mentioned a boyfriend. What the researchers were actually studying was how this social category information of sexual orientation would influence participants’ attitudes about the interaction.
And then she took out a tape measure. The tape measure was to gauge how close to my part-
ner’s chair I had placed my own chair, the hypothesis being that discomfort with a gay partner might manifest in terms of participants placing their chairs farther away. Greater comfort with or affinity for the partner was predicted to lead to more desire for proximity.
And at that, I was hooked. The little voice in my head had grown from a whisper to a full-throated yell that this was a field I could get excited about. First of all, the researchers had tricked me. That, alone, I thought was, for lack of a better word, cool. But more important, they had done so in the ef- fort to get me and my fellow participants to reveal something about our attitudes, preferences, and tendencies that we never would have admitted to (or perhaps even would have been aware of) had they just asked us directly. Here was a fasci- natingly creative research design, being used in the effort to study what struck me as an incredibly important social issue.
Like I said, I was hooked. And I look forward to help- ing to introduce you to this field that caught me by surprise back when I was a student and continues to intrigue and inspire me to this day.
Sam Sommers earned his BA from Williams College and his PhD from the University of Michigan. Since 2003 he has been a fac- ulty member in the Department of Psychology at Tufts University in Medford, Massachusetts. His research examines issues related to stereotyping, prejudice, and group diversity, with a particular inter- est in how these processes play out in the legal domain. He has won multiple teaching awards at Tufts, including the Lerman-Neubauer Prize for Outstanding Teaching and Advising and the Gerald R. Gill Professor of the Year Award. He was also inducted into the Tufts Hall of Diversity for his efforts to promote an inclusive climate on campus for all students. He has testified as an expert witness on issues related to racial bias, jury decision-making, and eyewit- ness memory in criminal trial proceedings in seven states. His first general audience book on social psychology was published in 2011, titled Situations Matter: Understanding How Context Transforms Your World. His next book, titled Your Brain on Sports, is coauthored with L. Jon Wertheim of Sports Illustrated and will be published in early 2016.
