Short Discussion Question 3

Short Discussion Question

Choose 3 questions out of 6. 

Write about 3 paragraphs each. (Total around 2~3 pages)

I’ve attached few powerpoint files which include career development theories. (please refer to it)

Depth answers. Add your own ideas, interpretations. 

1.  Give examples of how different cultural work values and worldviews can be sources of conflict and misunderstanding in the workplace.

2.  Discuss some of the specific gender-related career issues and career counseling implications.

3.  How have your gender and your cultural background influenced your career?

4.  Describe some of the ways families are changing and the potential impact on career development.

5.  Discuss the special needs of individuals with disabilities.

6.  Describe some examples of discrimination gay/lesbian/bisexual persons might experience at work.

Career Counseling: A Holistic Approach

Theories of Career Development

Part I

Theories of Career Development

• This chapter reviews 9 theories.
• Grouped according to Gelso and Fretz (2001):

Trait-oriented

Social learning and cognitive

Developmental

Person-in-environment

Theories of Career Development

• Initially vocational psychology focused on using assessments for job placement.
• Beginning in the early 1950s, the field began to include other factors:

Self-concept

Self-knowledge

Developmental issues

Theories of Career Development

• Theories have been criticized.

Vague about how to use findings

Out of touch with what practitioners need – a more direct link between theory and practice

Theories of Career Development

• What is a theory?
• What a theory is not
• Theories can help us with guidelines for counseling.

Trait-Oriented Theories

• Embedded in Parson’s paradigm
• Individuals are attracted to occupational environments that meet their personal needs and provide them with satisfaction.
• Include:

Trait-and-factor

Peron-environment-correspondence

John Holland’s typology

Trait-and-Factor Theory

• Parsons (1909) maintained that vocational guidance is accomplished by:

Studying the individual

Surveying occupations

Matching the individual with the occupation.

• This process is called trait-and-factor theory.

Trait-and-Factor Theory

• Parson’s three-step procedures may at first glance be judged to be completely dominated by test results.
• Brown, Brooks, and Associates (1990) argued that advocates of trait-and-factor approaches never approved of excessive use of testing.
• Test results are only one means of evaluating individual differences (Williamson, 1939).

Trait-and-Factor Theory

• Sharf (2002) summarized the advantages and disadvantages of trait-and-factor theory.

It is a static theory rather than a developmental one.

• The following assumptions also raise concerns about this theory:

There is a single career goal for everyone.

Career decisions are primarily based on measured abilities.

Trait-and-Factor Theory

• Prediger (1995) suggested that person-environment fit theory has enhanced the potential for a closer relationship between assessment and career counseling.
• Prediger suggested a similarity model, designed not to predict success or to find the “ideal career,” but to provide a means of evaluating occupations that are similar to people in important ways.

Practical Applications

• Major role of early approaches = diagnosis.
• Contemporary practices expanded the use of test data.

Example

Holland’s typology

Instead of predicting success in particular career, the counselor interprets test data and informs client of similarities to workers in particular careers.

Person-Environment-Correspondence (PEC)

• Previously referred to as the theory of work adjustment (TWA).
• The theory of work adjustment and person-environment-correspondence counseling (Dawis, 1996) involve workplace reinforcers that can lead to job satisfaction.

PEC Theory

• Work is more than step-by-step task-oriented procedures.

Work includes human interaction and sources of satisfaction, dissatisfaction, rewards, stress, and many other psychological variables.

Individuals seek to achieve and maintain a positive relationship with their work environments.

PEC Theory

• According to Dawis and Lofquist, individuals bring their requirements to a work environment, and the work environment makes its requirements of individuals.
• To survive, the individual and the work environment must achieve some degree of congruence (correspondence).
• To achieve this agreement, the individual must successfully meet the job requirements, and the work environment must fulfill the individual’s requirements.

PEC Theory

• Examples of occupational reinforcers:

Achievement

Authority

Advancement

Coworkers

Activity

Security

Social service

Status

Variety

• Lofquist and Dawis (1984) found a strong relationship between job satisfaction and work adjustment.

PEC Theory

• Implication of the theory of work adjustment:

Job satisfaction should be evaluated according to several factors.

Job satisfaction is an important career counseling concern but does not alone measure work adjustment.

Job satisfaction is an important predictor of job tenure.

PEC Theory

• Implications of the theory of work adjustment:

Individual needs and values are significant components of job satisfaction.

Individuals differ significantly in specific reinforcers of career satisfaction.

Career counselors should consider the reinforcers available in work environments and compare them with individual needs of clients.

PEC Theory

• Career counselors use occupational information to assist clients in matching individual needs, interests, and abilities with patterns and levels of different reinforcers in the work environment.

A worker’s attempt to improve his or her fit within the work environment is referred to as work adjustment.

Practical Applications

• Depends heavily on client assessment.
• Major concern = abilities/skills and values
• Presentation of assessment information should be tailored to client’s abilities, values, and style.

Highly verbal Verbal presentation

High spatial ability Graphic presentation

• Work adjustment in today’s society

John Holland:
A Typology Approach

• According to John Holland (1992), individuals are attracted to a given career by their particular personalities and numerous variables that constitute their backgrounds.

John Holland:
A Typology Approach

• Career choice is an expression of, or an extension of, personality into the world of work followed by subsequent identification with specific occupational stereotypes.
• Congruence of ones’ view of self with occupational preference establishes what Holland refers to as the modal personal style.

Holland’s Modal Personal Styles and Occupational EnvironmentsHolland (1985, 1992)
Personal Styles	Themes	Occupational Environments
May lack social skills; prefers concrete vs. abstract work tasks; may seem frank, materialistic, and inflexible; usually has mechanical abilities	Realistic	Skilled trades such as plumber, electrician, and machine operator; technician skills such as airplane mechanic, photographer, draftsperson, and some service occupations
Very task-oriented; is interested in math and science; may be described as independent, analytical, and intellectual; may be reserved and defers leadership to others	Investigative	Scientific such as chemist, physicist, and mathematician; technician such as laboratory technician, computer programmer, and electronics worker
Prefers self-expression through the arts; may be described as imaginative, introspective, and independent; values aesthetics and creation of art forms	Artistic	Artistic such as sculptor, artist, and designer; musical such as music teacher, orchestra leader, and musician; literary such as editor, writer, and critic
Prefers social interaction and has good communication skills; is concerned with social problems, and is community-service-oriented; has interest in educational activities	Social	Educational such as teacher, educational administrator, and college professor; social welfare such as social worker, sociologist, rehabilitation counselor, and professional nurse
Prefers leadership roles; may be described as domineering, ambitious, and persuasive; makes use of good verbal skills	Enterprising	Managerial such as personnel, production, and sales manager; various sales positions, such as life insurance, real estate, and car salesperson
May be described as practical, well-controlled, sociable, and rather conservative; prefers structured tasks such as systematizing and manipulation of data and word processing	Conventional	Office and clerical worker such as timekeeper, file clerk, teller, accountant, keypunch operator, secretary, bookkeeper, receptionist, and credit manager

John Holland’s Typology

• Holland’s 6 occupational environments/personal orientations can be arranged in a hexagon.

Realistic

Investigative

Artistic

Social

Enterprising

Conventional

John Holland’s Typology

• The categories next to each other on the hexagon are most similar.
• The categories opposite of each other on the hexagon are most dissimilar.

Realistic

Investigative

Artistic

Social

Enterprising

Conventional

John Holland’s Typology

• A code is used to represent the relative strength of client characteristics.

Example: SEC

Realistic

Investigative

Artistic

Social

Enterprising

Conventional

The Hexagon of General Occupational Themes (GOTs)

Investigative

Enterprising

Social

Artistic

Conventional

Realistic

GOT: Realistic

Investigative

Enterprising

Social

Artistic

Conventional

Realistic

Realistic: The Doers

• Like to work with their hands, tools/machines, computers
• Rugged, practical, physically strong, sensible, self-reliant
• Enjoy fixing, building, repairing, working outdoors
• Motivated to use hands-on skills to produce tangible results

Work Environments

Sample Jobs

• Manufacturing or industrial firms
• Construction, mining and energy industries
• Transportation fields (air, trucking, local transit, etc.)
• The outdoors; small, rural communities
• Situations permitting casual dress
• Structured settings, clear lines of authority

• Forester
• Law Enforcement
• Military
• Carpenter
• Engineer
• Veterinarian
• Computer & IS
• Radiology Technologist

Interests:

• Motivated to use hands-on skills to produce tangible results
• Likes to work with their hands, tools, machinery, computer networks
• Rugged, practical, physically strong
• Described as practical, persistent, adventurous, sensible, self-reliant
• Buys boats, campers, hiking equipment

Workplace

• Manufacturing or industrial firms with tangible products
• Construction, mining and energy industries
• Transportation fields (air, trucking, local transit, etc.)
• The outdoors; small, rural communities
• Situations permitting casual dress

Sample Job titles:

• Forester
• Carpenter
• Veterinarian
• Radiological Technologist

GOT: Investigative

Investigative

Enterprising

Social

Artistic

Conventional

Realistic

Investigative: The Thinkers

• Like to gather information, uncover new facts/theories, and interpret data
• Potentially competent in science, math, analysis
• Described as curious, independent, reserved, non-conforming
• Motivated to probe questions of intellectual curiosity

Work Environments

Sample Jobs

• Unstructured organizations that allow freedom in work styles
• Research and design laboratories and firms
• Universities and colleges
• Medical facilities
• Computer-related industries
• Scientific foundations and think tanks

• Chemist
• Software Developer
• R&D Manager
• Veterinarian
• University Professor
• Physician
• Science Teacher

Interests:

• Motivated to probe questions of intellectual curiosity
• Likes to gather information, uncover new facts/theories, and interpret data
• Potentially competent in science, math, analysis, writing and problem solving
• Described as curious, independent, reserved, rational, non-conforming
• Buys telescopes, computers, electronic equipment, sailboats, etc.

Workplace

• Research and design laboratories
• Universities and colleges
• Medical facilities
• Scientific foundations and think tanks

Job titles

• Chemist
• R&D Manager
• Veterinarian
• Respiratory Therapist
• Science Teacher

GOT: Artistic

Investigative

Enterprising

Social

Artistic

Conventional

Realistic

Artistic: The Creators

• Like art, music, drama, etc.
• Enjoy writing, creating or appreciating art, acting/performing
• Described as impulsive, non-conforming, independent
• Motivated to express themselves through their work

Work Environments

Sample Jobs

• Unstructured, flexible organizations that allow self-expression
• Art studios
• Theaters and concert halls
• Institutions that teach artistic skills (universities, music & dance schools, art institutes, etc.)
• Museums, libraries, galleries
• Advertising, public relations, graphic design and interior-design firms

• Artist
• Architect
• Librarian
• Attorney
• Journalist
• Medical Illustrator
• Public Relations Director
• Musician

Interests:

• Motivated to express themselves through their work
• Express their interests in leisure as well as vocational activities
• Described as impulsive, non-conforming & independent
• Buys art objects, books, instruments

Workplace

• Unstructured, flexible organizations that allow self-expression
• Institutions that teach artistic skills (universities, music & dance schools, art institutes, etc.)
• Museums, libraries, galleries

Job titles

• Librarian
• Urban & Regional Planner
• Broadcast Journalist
• Medical Illustrator
• Public Relations Director
• Musician

GOT: Social

Investigative

Enterprising

Social

Artistic

Conventional

Realistic

Social: The Helpers

• Like to work with people, often in groups
• Enjoy helping, nurturing, and teaching
• Solve problems through discussions and interactions with others
• Described as humanistic, idealistic, cooperative
• Motivated to help and empower

Work Environments

Sample Jobs

• Social service agencies
• Schools
• Religious organizations
• Human resources departments
• Medical service and healthcare facilities
• Mental health clinics

• Social Worker
• Athletic Trainer
• School Counselor
• Registered Nurse
• Elementary School Teacher
• Dietitian
• Community Service Director

Interests

• Motivated to help and empower
• Likes to work with people, often in groups
• Enjoy helping, nurturing, and teaching, especially young people
• Solve problems through discussions of feelings and interactions with others
• May enjoy working with people through leading, directing and persuading.
• Described as humanistic, idealistic, cooperative
• Spends money on social events and charity

Workplace

• Medical service and healthcare facilities
• Mental health clinics

Job titles

• Parks & Recreation Manager
• School Counselor
• School Administrator
• Registered Nurse
• Elementary School Teacher
• Dietitian

GOT: Enterprising

Investigative

Enterprising

Social

Artistic

Conventional

Realistic

Enterprising:The Persuaders

• Enjoy working with people and leading them toward organizational goals and/or economic success
• Like to lead, manage, persuade, give speeches
• Seek positions of leadership, power, status
• Described as persuasive, competitive, energetic, sociable
• Motivated to persuade others of the merits of an idea or product

Work Environments

Sample Jobs

• Industrial and manufacturing firms
• Government and political organizations
• Seats of power and finance (large corporations, brokerage firms, executive offices, etc.)
• Retail and wholesale firms
• Fund-raising organizations
• Independently owned businesses

• Investments Manager
• Realtor
• Buyer
• Marketing Manager
• Human Resources Manager
• Chef
• Elected Public Official

Interests:

• Motivated to persuade others of the merits of an idea or product
• Enjoy working with other people and leading them toward organizational goals and/or economic success
• Seeks positions of leadership, power, status
• Likes to lead groups, give speeches, manage people and projects, persuade
• Described as persuasive, adventuresome, competitive, energetic, sociable, optimistic
• Buys country club memberships, sporting event tickets, nice cars

Workplace:

• Industrial and manufacturing firms
• Seats of power and finance (large corporations, brokerage firms, executive offices, etc.)
• Retail and wholesale firms

Job titles:

• Investments Manager
• Restaurant Manager
• Realtor
• Operations Manager
• Buyer
• Marketing Manager
• Human Resources Manager

GOT: Conventional

Investigative

Enterprising

Social

Artistic

Conventional

Realistic

Conventional:The Organizers

• Like activities requiring attention to detail, organization, accuracy and data systems
• Enjoy mathematics and data management activities
• Described as practical, organized, systematic, accurate, conscientious
• Motivated to organize information, bring order to data and things

Work Environments

Sample Jobs

• Large corporations
• Business offices
• Financial institutions (banks, credit companies, etc.)
• Accounting firms
• Quality control and inspection departments
• Structured organizations with well-ordered chains of command

• Banker
• Computer Systems Analyst
• Paralegal
• Actuary
• Financial Analyst
• Accountant
• Business Education Teacher

Interests

• Motivated to organize information and bring order to data and things
• Likes activities requiring attention to detail, organization, accuracy and data systems.
• Enjoys mathematics and data management activities
• Described as practical, organized, systematic, accurate, conscientious
• Buys hobby collections (stamps, antiques, etc), home improvement supplies, games

Workplace

• Large corporations
• Business offices
• Accounting firms

Job titles

• Paralegal
• Financial Analyst
• Accountant
• Nursing Home Administrator
• Food Services Manager
• Business Education Teacher

The Hexagon of General Occupational Themes

Investigative

Enterprising

Social

Artistic

Conventional

Realistic

Holland’s Theory – Assumptions

• Most people can be categorized as one of six types.
• There are six kinds of environments.
• People search for environments that will let them exercise their skills and abilities, express their attitudes and values, and take on agreeable problems and roles.

Holland’s Hexagonal Model

• Consistency: The closer the types are on the hexagon, the more consistent the individual is.

Example: ESA would have higher consistency than RAE.

• Differentiation: Individuals who fit a pure personality type will express little resemblance to other types.

Those who fit several personality types are considered undifferentiated.

Holland’s Hexagonal Model

• Identity: Individuals who have a clear and stable picture of goals, interests, talents.
• Congruence: When an individual’s personality type matches the environment.
• Calculus: The theoretical relationships between types of occupational environments lend themselves to empirical research.

John Holland’s Typology

• Knowledge of both self and occupational environment is critical.
• Theory is primarily descriptive.
• RIASEC model has been tested with wide range of ethnically diverse individuals.

John Holland’s Typology

• Theory emphasizes the accuracy of self-knowledge and occupational information necessary for career decision making.
• Impact on interest assessments
• Practicality
• Most of Holland’s propositions are clearly defined and lend themselves to empirical evaluations.

John Holland’s Typology – Practical Applications

• Several inventories available designed by Holland and others for use with his theory:

Vocational Preference Inventory

My Vocational Situation

The Position Classification Inventory

Career Attitudes and Strategies Inventory

Self-Directed Search (SDS)

Steps in using the SDS

Trait-Oriented Theories — Summary

• Emphasize how standardized tests are used.
• Human traits can be matched with work environments to evaluate potential work sites.
• Individual’s work needs can be compared with components of job satisfaction found in certain occupational environments.
• Self-knowledge is essential for evaluating career information.

Trait-Oriented Theories — Summary

• One should consider a number of occupations that matches their personal needs and abilities.
• More attention needs to be given to work adjustment, job satisfaction, and problems faced by people in career transition.

Individuals in the 21st century will change jobs several times over their life span.

The job market will continue to fluctuate.

Workers will be required to adapt quickly, will be challenged with new procedures, tools, requirements, culturally diverse coworkers, etc.

Interests:

• Motivated to use hands-on skills to produce tangible results
• Likes to work with their hands, tools, machinery, computer networks
• Rugged, practical, physically strong
• Described as practical, persistent, adventurous, sensible, self-reliant
• Buys boats, campers, hiking equipment

Workplace

• Manufacturing or industrial firms with tangible products
• Construction, mining and energy industries
• Transportation fields (air, trucking, local transit, etc.)
• The outdoors; small, rural communities
• Situations permitting casual dress

Sample Job titles:

• Forester
• Carpenter
• Veterinarian
• Radiological Technologist

Interests:

• Motivated to probe questions of intellectual curiosity
• Likes to gather information, uncover new facts/theories, and interpret data
• Potentially competent in science, math, analysis, writing and problem solving
• Described as curious, independent, reserved, rational, non-conforming
• Buys telescopes, computers, electronic equipment, sailboats, etc.

Workplace

• Research and design laboratories
• Universities and colleges
• Medical facilities
• Scientific foundations and think tanks

Job titles

• Chemist
• R&D Manager
• Veterinarian
• Respiratory Therapist
• Science Teacher

Interests:

• Motivated to express themselves through their work
• Express their interests in leisure as well as vocational activities
• Described as impulsive, non-conforming & independent
• Buys art objects, books, instruments

Workplace

• Unstructured, flexible organizations that allow self-expression
• Institutions that teach artistic skills (universities, music & dance schools, art institutes, etc.)
• Museums, libraries, galleries

Job titles

• Librarian
• Urban & Regional Planner
• Broadcast Journalist
• Medical Illustrator
• Public Relations Director
• Musician

Interests

• Motivated to help and empower
• Likes to work with people, often in groups
• Enjoy helping, nurturing, and teaching, especially young people
• Solve problems through discussions of feelings and interactions with others
• May enjoy working with people through leading, directing and persuading.
• Described as humanistic, idealistic, cooperative
• Spends money on social events and charity

Workplace

• Medical service and healthcare facilities
• Mental health clinics

Job titles

• Parks & Recreation Manager
• School Counselor
• School Administrator
• Registered Nurse
• Elementary School Teacher
• Dietitian

Interests:

• Motivated to persuade others of the merits of an idea or product
• Enjoy working with other people and leading them toward organizational goals and/or economic success
• Seeks positions of leadership, power, status
• Likes to lead groups, give speeches, manage people and projects, persuade
• Described as persuasive, adventuresome, competitive, energetic, sociable, optimistic
• Buys country club memberships, sporting event tickets, nice cars

Workplace:

• Industrial and manufacturing firms
• Seats of power and finance (large corporations, brokerage firms, executive offices, etc.)
• Retail and wholesale firms

Job titles:

• Investments Manager
• Restaurant Manager
• Realtor
• Operations Manager
• Buyer
• Marketing Manager
• Human Resources Manager

Interests

• Motivated to organize information and bring order to data and things
• Likes activities requiring attention to detail, organization, accuracy and data systems.
• Enjoys mathematics and data management activities
• Described as practical, organized, systematic, accurate, conscientious
• Buys hobby collections (stamps, antiques, etc), home improvement supplies, games

Workplace

• Large corporations
• Business offices
• Accounting firms

Job titles

• Paralegal
• Financial Analyst
• Accountant
• Nursing Home Administrator
• Food Services Manager
• Business Education Teacher

Holland’s Modal Personal Styles and Occupational Environments

Holland (1985, 1992)

Personal Styles Themes Occupational Environments

May lack social skills; prefers concrete vs.

abstract work tasks; may seem frank,

materialistic, and inflexible; usually h as

mechanical abilities

Realistic Skilled trades such as plumber, electrician,

and machine operator; technician skills such

as airplane mechanic, photographer,

draftsperson, and some service occupations

Very task-oriented; is interested in math and

science; may be described as independent,

analytical, and intellectual; may be reserved

and defers leadership to others

Investigative Scientific such as chemist, physicist, and

mathematician; technician such as laboratory

technician, computer programmer, and

electronics worker

Prefers self-expression through the arts; may

be described as imaginative, introspective,

and independent; values aesthetics and

creation of art forms

Artistic Artistic such as sculptor, artist, and designer;

musical such as music teacher, orchestra

leader, and musician; literary such as editor,

writer, and critic

Prefers social interaction and has good

communication skills; is concerned with social

problems, and is community -service-oriented;

has interest in educational activities

Social Educational such as teacher, educational

administrator, and college professor; social

welfare such as social worker, sociologist,

rehabilitation counselor, and professional

nurse

Prefers leadership roles; may be described as

domineering, ambitious, and pe rsuasive;

makes use of good verbal skills

Enterprising Managerial such as personnel, production,

and sales manager; various sales positions,

such as life insurance, real estate, and car

salesperson

May be described as practical, well -controlled,

sociable, and rather conservative; prefers

structured tasks such as systematizing and

manipulation of data and word processing

Conventional Office and clerical worker such as

timekeeper, file clerk, teller, accountant,

keypunch operator, secretary, bookkeeper,

receptionist, and credit manager

1

Career Counseling: A Holistic Approach

Theories of Career Development

Part II

2

Social Learning & Cognitive Theories

These theories focus on wide range of variables that affect career choice and maintenance over the life span.

Key elements are problem-solving and decision-making skills.

Career choice also involves the interaction of cognitive and affective processes.

3

Krumboltz’s Learning Theory of Career Counseling

A social-learning theory approach to career decision making was first proposed by Krumboltz, Mitchell, and Gelatt (1975) and then several years later by Mitchell and Krumboltz (1990).

More recently, Mitchell and Krumboltz (1996) have extended the earlier social-learning theory approach to include Krumboltz’s learning theory of career counseling.

Now called the learning theory of career counseling (LTCC).

4

Krumboltz’s Learning Theory of Career Counseling

In LTCC, the process of career development involves four factors:

Genetic endowments and special abilities

Environmental conditions and events

Learning experiences

Task approach skills

5

Krumboltz’s Learning Theory of Career Counseling

Genetic endowments and special abilities include inherited qualities that may set limits on the individual’s career opportunities.

Environmental conditions and events are factors of influence that are often beyond the individual’s control.

6

Krumboltz’s Learning Theory of Career Counseling

Learning experiences include:

Instrumental learning

Associative learning experiences

Task approach skills include the sets of skills the individual has developed.

These sets of skills largely determine the outcome of problems and tasks the individual faces.

7

Krumboltz’s Learning Theory of Career Counseling

Emphasizes the importance of learning experiences and their effect on occupational selection.

Factors that influence preferences in the social-learning model:

Cognitive processes

Interactions in the environment

Inherited personal characteristics

8

Krumboltz’s Learning Theory of Career Counseling

Genetic and environmental factors are also involved.

Other factors influencing preferences are valued role models.

Finally, positive words and images will lead to positive reactions to that occupation.

9

Krumboltz’s Learning Theory of Career Counseling

Learning takes place through observations as well as through direct experiences.

Counselor’s role is to probe assumptions and to explore alternative beliefs and courses of action.

Assisting individuals to understand fully the validity of their beliefs is a major component.

10

Krumboltz’s Learning Theory of Career Counseling

Counselors should address the following problems.

Failure to recognize that a problem exists.

Failure to exert the effort needed to make a decision or solve a problem.

Eliminating a potentially satisfying alternative for inappropriate reasons.

Choosing poor alternatives.

Suffering anxiety over perceived inability to achieve goals.

11

Happenstance Approach Theory

Mitchell, Levin, and Krumboltz (1999) developed happenstance approach theory for career counseling.

Happenstance approach suggests that counselors are to assist clients respond to conditions and events in a positive manner.

Clients are to learn to deal with unplanned events, especially in the give-and-take of life in the 21st century workforce.

12

Happenstance Approach Theory

Five critical clients skills

Curiosity

Persistence

Flexibility

Optimism

Risk taking

13

Happenstance Approach Theory

Happenstance theory suggests that client learn to approach the future with a positive attitude and the curiosity and optimism that produces positive results.

Foster an attitude that takes advantage of unplanned events.

14

Happenstance Approach Theory

According to Mitchell and Krumboltz (1996), when people in modern society make career choices, they must cope with four fundamental trends.

Career counselors must recognize these trends:

Clients need to expand their capabilities and interests.

Clients need to prepare for changing work tasks.

Clients need to be empowered to take action.

Career counselors need to play a major role in dealing with all career problems.

15

Happenstance Approach Theory

Many have suggested that career and personal counseling should be integrated.

Many issues call for interventions by the career/personal counselor.

Burnout

Career change

Peer affiliate relationships

Obstacles to career development

The work role and its effect on other life roles are examples

And many others.

16

Career Development from a Cognitive Information Processing Perspective

Based on the cognitive information processing (CIP) theory developed by Peterson, Sampson, and Reardon (1991).

17

CIP is based on the following ten assumptions:

Career choice results from an interaction of cognitive and affective processes.

Making career choices is a problem solving activity.

The capabilities of career problem solvers depend on the availability of cognitive operations as well as knowledge.

18

CIP is based on the following ten assumptions:

Career problem solving is a high-memory-load task.

Motivation.

Career development involves continual growth and change in knowledge structures.

Career identity depends on self-knowledge.

19

CIP is based on the following ten assumptions:

Career maturity depends on one’s ability to solve career problems.

The ultimate goal is achieved by facilitating growth of information-processing skills.

Ultimate aim of career counseling is to enhance client’s capabilities as a career problem solver and decision-maker.

20

CIP

The major strategy of career intervention is to provide learning events that will develop the individual’s processing abilities.

21

CIP

The stages of processing information include:

Screening, translating, and encoding input in short-term memory

Then, storing it in long-term memory

Later activating, retrieving, and transforming the input into working memory to arrive at a solution.

22

CIP

Peterson, Sampson, and Reardon stress that career problem solving is primarily a cognitive process that can be improved through a sequential procedure known as CASVE.

CASVE includes the following processing skills:

Communication

Analysis

Synthesis

Valuing

Execution

23

24

Pyramid of information-processing domains

25

CIP

Major difference between CIP and others is the role of cognition as a mediating force that leads individuals to greater power and control in determining their own destinies.

Authors have proposed a seven-step sequence for career delivery. See text for example of “Individual Learning Plan.”

26

A career counseling sequence for individuals

27

Career Development from a Social Cognitive Perspective

According to Lent, Brown, and Hackett (1996), there are three ways to translate and share knowledge with existing theories and emerging ones.

28

Career Development from a Social Cognitive Perspective

The first is to agree on a common meaning for conceptually related concepts, such as self-concept and self-efficacy.

Betz (1992) defines career self-efficacy as “the possibility that low expectations of efficacy with respect to some aspect of career behavior may serve as a detriment to optimal career choice and the development of the individual,” (p. 24).

29

Self-Efficacy Theory

One of the most promising theories that may lend itself to addressing gender is Hackett and Betz’s (1981) self-efficacy theory (based primarily on Bandura’s social learning theory).

Hackett and Betz (1981) suggest that women who believe they are incapable of performing certain tasks (low self-efficacy) limit their career mobility and restrict their career options.

30

Career Development from a Social Cognitive Perspective

The second way to translate and share knowledge about existing theories and emerging ones is to fully describe and define common outcomes such as satisfaction and stability, found in a number of theories.

Finally, a third way is to fully explain the relationships among such diverse constructs as interests, self-efficacy, abilities, and needs.

31

Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT)

The aim is to explain how variables such as interests, abilities, and values interrelate and how all variables influence individual growth.

Also to delineate the contextual factors (environmental influences) that lead to career outcomes.

Also emphasized is the term personal agency.

32

SCCT

Key Theoretical Constructs

The personal determinants of career development have been conceptualized as self-efficacy, outcome expectations, and personal goals.

The “big three” are considered to be building blocks that determine the course of career development and its outcome.

33

SCCT

Self-efficacy is a set of beliefs about a specific performance domain.

Outcome expectations are regarded as personal beliefs about expectations or consequences of behavioral activities.

Personal goals are considered to be guides that sustain behavior.

34

SCCT

Interest Developmental Model

Individuals develop interests through activities in which they view themselves as competent and generally expect valued outcomes.

Attitudes and Values

Values are preferences for particular reinforcers such as money, status, or autonomy.

Gender and Race/Ethnicity

The individual’s socially constructed world, not the inherited biological traits, is the focus of gender and race in the SCCT.

35

SCCT

Choice Model

The choice process is divided into three components:

Establishing a goal

Taking action to implement a choice

Attaining a level of performance that determines the direction of future career behavior

36

SCCT

Choice Model

The pathways to career choice in SCCT are:

Self-efficacy and outcome expectations promote career-related interests

Interests in turn influence goals

Goal-related actions lead to performance experiences

The outcome determines future paths (determined by whether self-efficacy is strengthened or weakened)

Finally, one establishes a career decision or redirects goals.

37

SCCT

Performance Model

A summary description of SCCT theory.

It points out the interplay of ability, self-efficacy, outcome expectations, and the establishment of goals for judging performance.

38

SCCT – Practical Applications

Suggestions include educational programs in schools that concentrate on developing interests, values, and talents.

Individuals who are experiencing great difficulty with career choice or change should be presented with array of occupations that correspond with their abilities and values, but not necessarily with their interests.

39

SCCT – Practical Applications

Strategy used to combat perceived weaknesses includes using occupational card sorts.

Overcoming barriers to choice and success is a significant goal.

School-to-work initiatives include designing skills programs that provide for self-efficacy enhancement, realistic outcome expectations, and goal-setting skills.

40

Summary of Social Learning and Cognitive Theories

Emphasis on self-knowledge.

Information-processing skills of major importance.

Stress importance of human traits such as ability, personality, and values, and suggest research be directed to how these variables interrelate to influence growth and development.

41

Summary of Social Learning and Cognitive Theories

Other important factors are social, cultural, and economic conditions.

Counselors are urged to unearth contextual interactions and relationship between events and experiences of each client.

42

Summary of Social Learning and Cognitive Theories

Self-efficacy is thought to be the result of several factors.

Career beliefs are a core element.

Faulty beliefs are aggressively addressed.

Learning programs are important for increasing range of career choices.

Learning takes place in many ways.

43

Summary of Social Learning and Cognitive Theories

Have clients observe work activities and attempt to learn certain tasks.

Standardized tests used to determine educational and cognitive deficits.

Individual learning program goals and activities designed to debunk faulty thinking.

44

Summary of Social Learning and Cognitive Theories

Learning to process information effectively is a major goal of these theories.

Skills learned in an initial career choice process can be used in the future.

Clients can prepare for future changes in work.

Learning to adapt and adjust is a lifelong endeavor.

Career Information and the CASVE Cycle

Phase of the CASVE Cycle Example of Career Information and Media

Communication (identifying a

need)

A description of the personal and family issues

that women typically face in returning to work

(information) in a video-taped interview of

currently employed women (medium)

Analysis (interrelating

problem components)

Explanations of the basic education requirements

for degree programs (information) in community

college catalogues (medium)

Synthesis (creating likely

alternatives)

A presentation of emerging nontraditional career

options for women (information) at a seminar on

career development for women (medium)

Valuing (prioritizing

alternatives)

An exploration of how the roles of parent, spouse,

citizen, “leisurite,” and homemaker would be

affected by the assumption of the worker role

(information) in an adult version of a computer –

assisted career guidance system (medium)

Execution (forming means –

ends strategies)

A description of a function resume emphasizing

transferable skills, followed by the creation of a

resume (information) presented on a computer –

assisted employability skills system (medium)

Career Information and the CASVE Cycle
Phase of the CASVE Cycle	Example of Career Information and Media
Communication (identifying a need)	A description of the personal and family issues that women typically face in returning to work (information) in a video-taped interview of currently employed women (medium)
Analysis (interrelating problem components)	Explanations of the basic education requirements for degree programs (information) in community college catalogues (medium)
Synthesis (creating likely alternatives)	A presentation of emerging nontraditional career options for women (information) at a seminar on career development for women (medium)
Valuing (prioritizing alternatives)	An exploration of how the roles of parent, spouse, citizen, “leisurite,” and homemaker would be affected by the assumption of the worker role (information) in an adult version of a computer-assisted career guidance system (medium)
Execution (forming means-ends strategies)	A description of a function resume emphasizing transferable skills, followed by the creation of a resume (information) presented on a computer-assisted employability skills system (medium)

Career Counseling: A Holistic Approach

Theories of Career Development

Part III

Developmental Theories

• Primary assumption is that career development is a process that takes place over the life span.

Developmental Theories

• The Life-Span, Life-Space Approach to Careers

Donald Super (1972)

Career development was viewed as a continuous process.

Self-concept theory is a vital part of Super’s approach to vocational behavior.

Developmental Theories
Super’s Self-Concept

• Research has indicated that the vocational self-concept develops through:

physical and mental growth

observations of work

identification with working adults

general environment

and general experiences.

Developmental Theories
Super’s Self-Concept

• Although the vocational self-concept is only part of the total self-concept, it is the driving force that establishes a career pattern one will follow throughout life.
• Thus, individuals implement their self-concepts into careers that will provide the most efficient means of self-expression.

Developmental Theories
Super’s Self-Concept

• Self-concept developmental process is multidimensional.
• Clients have a better chance of making optimal decisions when they are most aware of the work world and themselves.

Super’s Vocational Stages

• Another of Super’s important contributions has been his formalization of vocational developmental stages:

Growth (birth to age 14 or 15)

Exploratory (ages 15-24)

Establishment (ages 25-44)

Maintenance (ages 45-64)

Decline (ages 65+)

Five developmental tasks are delineated by typical age ranges, but tasks can occur at other age levels.

Super’s Vocational Developmental Tasks
Vocational Developmental Tasks	Ages	General Characteristics
Crystallization	14-18	A cognitive process period of formulating a general vocational goal through awareness of resources, contingencies, interests, values, and planning for the preferred occupation.
Specification	18-21	A period of moving from tentative vocational preferences toward a specific vocation preference.
Implementation	21-24	A period of completing training for vocational preference and entering employment.
Stabilization	24-35	A period of confirming a preferred career by actual work experience and use of talents to demonstrate career choice as an appropriate one.
Consolidation	35+	A period of establishment in a career by advancement, status, and seniority.

Super’s Developmental Stages

• Super (1990) modified the developmental tasks through the life span as shown on next slide and uses the terms cycling and recycling.

The Cycling and Recycling of Developmental Tasks Through the Life Span
	Age
Life Stage	Adolescence (14-25)	Early Adulthood (25-45)	Middle Adulthood (45-65)	Late Adulthood (over 65)
Decline	Giving less time to hobbies	Reducing sports participation	Focusing on essential activities	Reducing working hours
Maintenance	Verifying current occupational choice	Making occupational position secure	Holding own against competition	Keeping up what is still enjoyed
Establishment	Getting started in a chosen field	Settling down in a permanent position	Developing new skills	Doing things one has always wanted to do
Exploration	Learning more about more opportunities	Finding opportunity to do desired work	Identifying new problems to work on	Finding a good retirement spot
Growth	Developing a realistic self-concept	Learning to relate to others	Accepting one’s limitations	Developing nonoccupational roles

Super – Career Maturity

• One of Super’s best-known studies, launched in 1951, followed the vocational development of ninth-grade boys in Middletown, NY (Super & Overstreet, 1960).
• The career maturity concepts developed by Super have far-reaching implications for career education and career counseling programs.

Implications of Super’s Approach

• The critical phases of career maturity development provide points of reference.
• The delineation of desired attitudes and competencies affords the specification of objectives for instructional and counseling projects.

Implications of Super’s Approach

• Super (1974) identified six dimensions that he thought were relevant and appropriate for adolescents:

Orientation to vocational choice

Information and planning

Consistency of vocational preferences

Crystallization of traits

Vocational independence

Wisdom of vocational preferences

Implications of Super’s Approach

• Example of how this information can be used.
• The dimensions of career maturity support the concept that education and counseling can provide the stimulus for career development.
• Super’s is most comprehensive of all developmental theories.

Implications of Super’s Approach

• Two major tenets of his theory give credence to developmental theories in general.

Career development is a lifelong process occurring through defined developmental periods.

The self-concept is being shaped as each phase of life exerts its influence on human behavior.

• Super (1990) illustrated a life-stage model by using a “life rainbow” as shown in Figure 2-4.

The life-career rainbow: Six life roles in schematic life space

Implications of Super’s Approach

• This model leads to some interesting observations:

Success in one role facilitates success in another.

All roles affect one another in the various theaters.

Super’s Archway Model

• Super also created an “archway model” to delineate the changing diversity of life roles experienced by individuals over the life span.

A segmental model

of career development

Super’s Archway Model

• The relationship of the model’s segments highlights the interaction of influences in the career development process.
• In a publication after Super’s death in 1994, his theory was labeled “the life-span life-space approach to careers.”
• In this broad-based approach, gender and cultural differences are also addressed.

Super – Practical Applications

• Super and his colleagues developed numerous assessment instruments designed to measure developmental tasks over the life span.
• Career Development Assessment and Counseling model (C-DAC) was developed to measure constructs from the life-span, life-space theory in four phases.

Focus on client’s life structure and work-role salience.

Measure client’s perception of the work role, referred to as the client’s career stage, and career concerns.

Measures of abilities, interests, and values.

Assessment of self-concepts and life themes.

Super – Practical Applications

• After assessment, counselor interprets data to client.
• Counselor assists client to develop accurate picture of her/his self and life roles.
• Counseling procedures pertinent to career development tasks are recommended.
• Counseling may use coaching, educating, mentoring, modifying, or restructuring during an interview.

Developmental Theories – Gottfredson

• Circumscription, Compromise, and Self-Creation: A Developmental Theory of Occupational Aspirations

Developmental Theories – Gottfredson

• The main theme of Gottfredson’s (1981) theory is the development of occupational aspirations.
• Her theory describes how people become attracted to certain occupations.

Developmental Theories – Gottfredson

• Self-concept in vocational development is a key factor to career selection because people want jobs that are compatible with their self-images.

Key determinants of self-concept development are one’s social class, level of intelligence, and experiences with sex-typing.

Developmental Theories – Gottfredson

• According to Gottfredson, individual development progresses through four stages:

1. Orientation to size and power (ages 3-5)

2. Orientation to sex roles (ages 6-8)

3. Orientation to social valuation (ages 9-13)

4. Orientation to the internal, unique self (beginning at age 14)

Developmental Theories – Gottfredson

• A major determinant of occupational preferences is the progressive circumscription of aspirations during self-concept development.
• Gottfredson suggested that socioeconomic background and intellectual level greatly influence individuals’ self-concept in the dominant society.
• As people project into the work world, they choose occupations that are appropriate to their “social space,” intellectual level, and sex-typing.

Developmental Theories – Gottfredson

• Gottfredson suggested that people compromise their occupational choices because of accessibility or even give up vocational interests to take a job that has an appropriate level of prestige and sex-type.
• This theory has a strong sociological perspective.

Gottfredson is concerned with the external barriers that limit individual goals and opportunities.

• The theory’s premise is that career choice is a process of eliminating options, thus narrowing one’s choices.

Developmental Theories – Gottfredson

• Major Concepts of Gottfredson’s Theory

Self-Concept

Images of Occupations

Cognitive Maps of Occupations

Social Space

Circumscription

Compromise

Gottfredson

• The scope of the theory was expanded greatly in Gottfredson (2002).

She stressed that career development is to be viewed as a nature-nurture partnership.

Genetically distinct individuals create different environments, and each individual’s genetic uniqueness shapes their experiences.

Gottfredson

• This position differs from socialization theory (which suggests we are passive learners from our environmental experiences) and supports the view that we are active participants in creating self-directed experiences.
• Both genes and environment contribute to one’s unique development.

Gottfredson

• The nature-nurture partnership approach therefore adheres to an inner compass from which one may circumscribe and compromise life choices.
• Gottfredson’s theory is distinguished from others by her emphasis on inherited genetic propensities that shape individual traits.

Gottfredson

• The implications for career counseling include a perspective on individual differences that focuses on the influence of genetic individuality.
• Most important to recognize the interplay of genetic and environmental factors.

Gottfredson

• Individuals and their environments are involved in a continuous state of dynamic interaction.
• Counselors are to respect the individuality of all clients and make no assumptions about a client’s vocational interests, attitudes, and abilities.
• Counselors should encourage clients to be as realistic as possible.

Gottfredson – Practical Applications

• She recommends five developmental criteria to aid the counselee in dealing with reality.

The counselee is able to name one or more occupational alternatives.

The counselee’s interests and abilities are adequate for occupations chosen.

The counselee is satisfied with the alternatives s/he has identified.

The counselee has not unnecessarily restricted her/his alternatives.

The counselee is aware of opportunities and is realistic about obstacles for implementing the chosen occupation.

Gottfredson – Practical Applications

• She adds a biosocial perspective to the career development of the very young.
• She strongly suggests that more attention be given to the development of individuals in their young years.

Gottfredson – Practical Applications

• Of her key concepts, circumscription and compromise are the most dynamic.
• Her theory has been criticized because it is limited to children and leaves much to be said about adult development.

Development Theories – Summary

• Concept of vocational maturity illuminates the proposition that some clients simply are not prepared to make an optimal career decision.
• Counselors are to assess a client’s orientation to work, planning skills, and reality of occupational preferences to determine readiness for career choice.
• There are developmental tasks and stages in career development that provide windows of opportunity for counseling interventions.

Development Theories – Summary

• Self-concept is the driving force that establishes a career pattern.
• The assumption that clients are involved in several life roles simultaneously, and success in one life role facilitates success in another, underscores the important perspective of life-span development.

Development Theories – Summary

• Gottfredson’s research underscores a well-known position that career educations should begin with the very young.
• Counselors need to make every effort to empower children to learn more about he work world and promote the proposition that each child should feel free to choose any career.

Development Theories – Summary

• Each client’s unique development should be the focus of the intake interview.
• Developmental theories point out that each individuals development is unique, multifaceted, and multidimensional.
• Counselors must recognize that client concerns can emerge from internal and external factors or a combination of both.

The Cycling and Recycling of Developmental Tasks Through the Life Span

Age

Life Stage

Adolescence

(14-25)

Early

Adulthood

(25-45)

Middle

Adulthood

(45-65)

Late

Adulthood

(over 65)

Decline Giving less

time to

hobbies

Reducing

sports

participation

Focusing on

essential

activities

Reducing

working hours

Maintenance Verifying

current

occupational

choice

Making

occupational

position

secure

Holding own

against

competition

Keeping up

what is still

enjoyed

Establishment Getting

started in a

chosen field

Settling down

in a

permanent

position

Developing

new skills

Doing things

one has always

wanted to do

Exploration Learning

more about

more

opportunities

Finding

opportunity to

do desired

work

Identifying

new

problems to

work on

Finding a good

retirement spot

Growth Developing a

realistic self-

concept

Learning to

relate to

others

Accepting

one’s

limitations

Developing

nonoccupational

roles

Super’s Vocational Developmental Tasks

Vocational

Developmental

Tasks

Ages General Characteristics

Crystallization 14-18 A cognitive process period of formulating a

general vocational goal through awareness

of resources, contingencies, interests,

values, and planning for the preferred

occupation.

Specification 18-21 A period of moving from tentative vocational

preferences toward a specific vocation

preference.

Implementation 21-24 A period of completing training for vocational

preference and entering em ployment.

Stabilization 24-35 A period of confirming a preferred career by

actual work experience and use of talents to

demonstrate career choice as an

appropriate one.

Consolidation 35+ A period of establishment in a career by

advancement, status, and s eniority.